1. History, Theories, and Methods
CHAPTER 1
History, Theories, and Methods

2. The Development of the Study of Development

3. Child Development Pioneers
John Locke
Believed children came into the world as a “tabula rasa,” or blank slate
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Believed children were inherently good, and when allowed to express natural impulses, generous morality would develop

4. Child Development Pioneers (cont’d)
G. Stanley Hall
Founded child development as an academic discipline and focused scientific attention on the period of adolescence
Alfred Binet/Theodore Simon
Developed first standardized intelligence test intended to help public school children at risk of falling behind their peers in academic achievement

5. Adult Development Theorists
William Perry/Gisella Labouvie-Vief
Studied cognitive complexity from adolescence to late adulthood
K.W. Schaie
Studied trends in various mental abilities throughout middle and late adulthood
Some abilities decline in middle and late adulthood, but others that represent the accumulation of decades of knowledge can advance into late adulthood.

6. Theories of Development

7. Developmental Theories
Learning theory
Stressed the importance of the physical and social environments (nurture) (John B. Watson)
Maturation view
Stressed the importance of biological maturation as the main force in development (nature) (Arnold Gessell)
Psychoanalytic perspective
Stressed the importance of conflicts between opposing inner forces (Freud)

8. Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
Focused on emotional and social development
Focused on the origins of psychological traits
dependence, obsessive neatness, and vanity
Three parts of the personality
- Id
Present at birth; unconscious
Represents biological drives
Demands instant gratification
- Ego
Conscious sense of self
Seeks gratification but avoids social disapproval
- Superego
Conscious
Monitors the intentions and behavior of ego by allowing guilt and shame

9. Five Stages of Psychosexual Development
Stage 1 – Oral stage Focus on oral activities such as sucking and biting during first year of life
Stage 2 – Anal stage Focus on control and elimination of bodily waste products
Toilet training stage of life
Stage 3 – Phallic stage Focus on parent/child conflict over child’s personal sexual exploration
Stage 4 – Latency stage Focus on schoolwork
Sexual feelings remain unconscious
Children play with same sex playmates
Stage 5 – Genital stage Begins with biological changes in adolescence resulting in desire for intercourse
Freud believed that if a child receives too much or too little during any stage, the child can become fixated in that stage.
Oral Stage- Child develops a fixation if weaned too early or breast-fed too long.
Anal Stage- Excessively strict or permissive toilet training can lead to the development of:
1. anal-retentive traits, such as perfectionism.
2. anal-expulsive traits, such as sloppiness and carelessness
Phallic Stage- Child develops a strong sexual attachment to the opposite sex parent.
Parent of same sex seen as a rival.
Genital Stage- Freud believed that oral or anal stimulation, masturbation, and male-male or female-female sexual activity
are immature forms of sexual conduct that reflect earlier fixations.

10. Contributions of Freudian Theory
Stimulated various research areas
Influenced how childcare workers approach infants, toddlers, and preschoolers
Influenced teachers’ sensitivity to students’ emotional needs
Influenced the stage models of other theorists such as Erikson
Stimulated research on:
attachment
gender role development
moral development

11. Limitations of Freudian Theory
Theory developed from his interactions with adult patients (mostly women)
May have inadvertently guided patients’ reports to confirm his views
Overemphasized basic instincts and unconscious motives

12. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
Focused on development of
emotional life
psychological traits
self-identity
Looked at importance of social relationships, but emphasis was on the ego (sense of self)
Viewed physical maturation as a major contributor to development
Viewed that early experiences affect future developments and/or accomplishments
Successful resolution of early life crises bolster sense of identity

13. Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development
Stage 1 – Trust vs. mistrust (age 1)
Stage 2 – Autonomy vs. shame/doubt (ages 1-3)
Stage 3 – Initiative vs. guilt (ages 3-5)
Stage 4 – Industry vs. inferiority (ages 6-12)
Stage 5 – Identity vs. confusion (ages 12-18)
Stage 6 – Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood)
Stage 7 – Generativity vs. self-absorption (middle adulthood)
Stage 8 – Integrity vs. despair (late adulthood)
How is Erikson different than Freud?
Erikson focuses on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development.
Erikson places greater emphasis on the ego, or the sense of self.
Erikson extended Freud’s five stages to EIGHT to include the concerns of adulthood.
Erikson labeled his stages after the LIFE CRISIS that people might encounter during that stage, rather than after parts of the body (like Freud).

14. Contributions of Erikson’s Theory
Emphasized importance of human consciousness and choice
Portrayed human development as prosocial and helpful
Some empirical support that positive outcomes of early life crises help put us on path to positive development
As opposed to Freud who portrayed us as selfish and needing to be compelled to comply with social rules

15. Behavioral Theory Classical conditioning Operant conditioning
Developed by Pavlov
Learning in which a neutral stimulus elicits the response usually brought forth by a second stimulus through repeated pairings with the second stimulus
ex. tension in children’s bladder paired with the bell
Operant conditioning
Developed by Skinner
Learning in which an organism learns to engage in behavior that is reinforced
ex. child learns to adjust behavior to conform to social codes and rules to earn reinforcers such as attention and approval
Classical Conditioning
-Behaviorists argue that much emotional learning is acquired through classical conditioning.

16. Figure 1.1: Schematic Representation of Classical Conditioning.
Before conditioning, the bell is an unlearned or unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that elicits waking up, which is an unlearned or unconditioned response (UCR). Bladder tension does not elicit waking up, which is the problem. During the conditioning procedure, bladder tension repeatedly precedes urination, which in turn causes the bell to ring. After several repetitions, bladder tension has become associated with the bell, making bladder tension into a learned or conditioned stimulus (CS) that causes the child to awaken. Awakening in response to bladder tension is a learned or conditioned response (CR).
Fig. 1-1, p. 6

17. Reinforcement Positive reinforcers Negative reinforcers Extinction
Increase the frequency of behaviors when they are applied
ex. food and approval
Negative reinforcers
Increase the frequency of behaviors when undesirable states are removed
ex. fear of failure is removed when one studies for a test
Extinction
Results from repeated performance of operant behavior without reinforcement
ex. child’s temper tantrum stops when parent leaves the room

18. Figure 1.2: Positive versus Negative Reinforcers.
All reinforcers increase the frequency of behavior. In these examples, teacher approval functions as a positive reinforcer when students study harder because of it. Teacher disapproval functions as a negative reinforcer when its removal increases the frequency of studying.
Fig. 1-2, p. 7

19. Figure 1.3: Negative Reinforcers versus Punishments.
Both negative reinforcers and punishments tend to be aversive stimuli. Reinforcers, however, increase the frequency of behavior. Punishments decrease the frequency of behavior. Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of behavior when they are removed.
Fig. 1-3, p. 7

20. Punishment
Punishment: aversive events that suppress or decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow
Punishment CONS
Does not suggest alternative acceptable behavior
Suppresses undesirable behavior only when its delivery is guaranteed
Can create feelings of anger and hostility

21. Social-Cognitive Theory
Developed by Bandura
Learning occurs
by observing other people
by reading
by viewing characters in the media
Observational learning occurs by the modeling of a behavior to another person

22. Cognitive-Developmental Theory
Developed by Piaget
Intrigued by children’s wrong answers
Children seen as active participants
Scheme
Action pattern or mental structure involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge
Adaptation
Interaction between the organism and the environment
Assimilation
The incorporation of new events or knowledge into existing schemes
Accommodation
The modification of existing schemes to permit the incorporation of new events or knowledge
Equilibration
Achieving a balance between assimilation and accommodation
Jean Piaget realized that when children answered questions incorrectly, their wrong answers still often reflected consistent, although illogical, mental processes.
Piaget regarded children as natural physicists who actively intend to learn about and take intellectual charge of their worlds.

23. Four Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage 1 – Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years)
focus on sensory exploration; object permanence mastered
Stage 2 – Preoperational (2-7 years)
focus on language and symbolic expression through play; children are egocentric
Stage 3 – Concrete operational (7-12 years)
focus on mastering concepts such as reversibility
Stage 4 – Formal operational (12 years and older)
ability to reason abstractly
Discussed in subsequent chapters.

24. Information-Processing Theory
Based on computer model of information processing
Cognitive process of
encoding information (input)
storing the information into long-term memory
retrieving the information (or placing it in short-term memory)
manipulating the information to solve problems
Most applicable to the teaching of methodological steps
ex: teaching the scientific method
Our strategies for solving problems are sometimes referred to as our “mental programs” or “software.”

25. The Biological Perspective
Directly relates to physical development:
gains in height and weight
development of the brain
developments connected with hormones, reproduction, and heredity
Two primary theories
Evolutionary psychology
Ethology
Influenced by Charles Darwin, Konrad Lorenz, and Niko Tinbergen
Research into ethological perspective suggest that instinct may play a role in human behavior.
Looks at development ethologically-
inborn, instinctive, behavior patterns
Fixed action patterns – built in or instinctive behaviors
Ex.: birds migrating to same place
Ex: sex hormone secretion during prenatal development resulting in masculine or feminine patterned brain

26. Evolutionary Psychology
Studies the ways in which adaptation and natural selection are connected with mental processes and behavior
Behavior patterns that help an organism to survive and reproduce are likely to be transmitted to the next generation
Fixed action patterns
A stereotyped pattern of behavior evoked by a “releasing stimulus,” an instinct

27. The Ecological Perspective
Ecology
The branch of biology that deals with the relationships between living organisms and their environment
Bronfenbrenner
Looked at two-way interactions between the child and the parents, not just maturational forces (nature) or childrearing practices (nurture)
This is a systems approach recognizing that there are systems imbedded in other systems which influence behavior and development
Ex: the behavior of a child is influenced by parents, peers, teachers, social groups, socio- economic status, etc.

28. Bronfenbrenner’s Systems Approach
Microsystem
interactions of the child with other people in the immediate setting such as the home, school, or peer group
Mesosystem
interactions of various settings with the microsystem such as a parent-teacher conference or a school field trip to the zoo
Exosystem
institutions that indirectly affect the development of the child such as the school board or the parent’s place of employment
Macrosystem
interaction of the child with the beliefs, expectations, and lifestyle of his/her cultural setting
Chronosystem
the influence that changes over time have on development

29. Figure 1.4: The Contexts of Human Development.
According to ecological systems theory, the systems within which children develop are embedded within larger systems. Children and these systems reciprocally influence each other.
Fig. 1-4, p. 11

30. The Sociocultural Perspective
Developed by Vygotsky
Teaches that people are social beings who are affected by the cultures in which they live
Focuses on the transmission of information and cognitive skills from generation to generation
Views that learning consists of social engagement from a more skilled individual to a lesser skilled individual
ex: an older sibling teaching a younger sibling to ride a bike

31. Sociocultural Terms Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Scaffolding
range of tasks that a child can carry out with the help of a more skilled apprentice
Scaffolding
problem-solving methods such as cues provided to the child to increase independent functioning
Diversity
one’s ethnicity, race, gender, age, etc.

32. Controversies in Development

33. The Nature/Nurture Controversy
Which is more influential in development – nature (heredity) or nurture (environmental influences)?
Natural causes
Genetics
Nervous system functioning
Maturation
Environmental causes
Nutrition
Cultural and familial backgrounds
Educational opportunities
Natural Causes- of development studied are genetic heritage (twin studies used frequently), the functioning of the nervous system and maturation
Environmental causes- are nutrition, cultural and familial backgrounds, educational opportunities, cognitive stimulation during early childhood and formal education

34. The Continuity/Discontinuity Controversy
Continuous perspective views development as
a process where the effects of learning mount gradually with no major sudden qualitative changes
Discontinuous perspective views development as
a number of rapid qualitative changes that usher in new STAGES of development
biological changes provide the potential for psychological changes
Freud and Piaget were discontinuous theorists

35. The Active-Passive Controversy
Active perspective
maintains children are actively engaged in their development
ex: child viewed as willful and unruly
Passive perspective
maintains that children are passive and the environment acts on them to influence development
ex: child viewed as blank tablets

36. How Do We Study Development?

37. Developmental Research Methodologies
Naturalistic observation
research conducted in natural setting
in “the field”
Case study
carefully drawn account of an individual’s behavior
Naturalistic Observation-
Observer takes great pains not to disturb the environment.
Interference can result in “bias” in the research results
Effective when studying cultures
Case Studies-
may use diaries, questionnaires, standardized tests, interviews, information from public records

38. Correlational Studies
attempt to determine whether one behavior or trait being studied is correlated with another; never indicates cause and effect
Correlation coefficient
number ranging from to that expresses the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables
positive correlation
negative correlation
Positive correlation – relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other increases.
Negative Correlation – relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other decreases.

39. Figure 1.6: Examples of Positive and Negative Correlations.
When two variables are correlated positively, one increases as the other increases. There is a positive correlation between the amount of time spent studying and grades, as shown in Part A. When two variables are correlated negatively, one increases as the other decreases. There is a negative correlation between the frequency of a child’s delinquent acts and his or her grades, as shown in Part B. As delinquent behavior increases, grades tend to decline.
Fig. 1-5, p. 16

40. Preferred method for investigating questions of cause and effect
The Experiment
Preferred method for investigating questions of cause and effect
One group receives the treatment and the other group does not
Experiments test a hypothesis
Experiments have independent and dependent variables
independent variable is manipulated
dependent variables are the measured results

41. Experiments (cont’d) Experimental group Control group
receives the treatment
Control group
does not receive the treatment
Random assignment
subjects assigned to a group randomly
Ethical/practical considerations
researchers look at the assignment of participants; sometimes correlational evidence must be settled for rather than experimental
Animal subjects
used to generalize findings to humans when it is not ethical or practical to use humans in the experiment

42. Longitudinal Research
In longitudinal research
same people are observed repeatedly over time, and changes in development are recorded
Typical time of study spans months or a few years
Longitudinal researchers must enlist future researchers to continue the study
Seeks to study development over time-
-some subjects’ characteristics such as height, weight, and/or changes in mental capabilities observed repeatedly over time
-a larger number of participants is needed for this type of study

43. Cross-Sectional Research
Cross-sectional research observes and compares subjects of different ages
a larger number of participants is needed for this type of study
Cohort effect
Group of people born at the same time will experience cultural and other events unique to age group
Cohort effect-
children of a particular cohort will have different life experiences than their parents

44. Cross-Sequential Research
Combines longitudinal and cross-sectional methods to overcome research drawbacks
Breaks up the full span of the ideal longitudinal study into convenient segments
Minimizes the number of years needed to complete a study
Uses time-lag comparisons

45. Figure 1.7: Example of Cross-Sequential Research.
Cross-sequential research combines three methods: cross-sectional, longitudinal, and time lag. The child’s age at the time of testing appears in the boxes. Vertical columns represent cross-sectional comparisons. Horizontal rows represent longitudinal comparisons. Diagonals represent time-lag comparisons.
Fig. 1-6, p. 19

46. Ethical Considerations
Do not use methods that may cause physical or psychological harm
Inform participants of the purposes of the research and its methods
Participation must involve voluntary consent
Participants may withdraw from study at any time, for any reason
Participants are offered information about the results of the study
Identities of participants remains confidential
Research plans are to be presented to a committee of colleagues and gain approval before proceeding