1. Week 3: Assessing & Teaching Functional Skills

2. Updates/Agenda
On Wed. for Functional Curriculum: Article Review #1 is Due.
Next Week April 18th, Two Assignments Due:
Ecological Inventory & Article Review #1
Please Check Wiki for Readings & Assignments: Next week- read articles on Performance Assessments (Week 4)
For Wed. from Wiki- choose to read 1 of the articles on paraprofessionals

3. Steps in Ecological Assessment Process
Step 1: Plan with Student & Family
Step 2: Summarize what is known about the student
Step 3: Encourage Self-Determination/ Assess Student Preferences
Step 4: Assess student’s instructional program
Step 5: Develop ecological assessment report

4. The Arc’s Self-Determination Scale
Take a look

6. After you have determined where those skills can be met, conduct an ecological inventory of:
Environments: (e.g., High school classes)
Sub-environment: (e.g., Consumer math)
Activities: (e.g., work problems in text, lecture, computer simulations, group projects, etc.)
Natural supports available: (e.g., computer for each student, teacher gives 1:1 feedback
Target Skills: (e.g., number recognition, use of calculator)

8. Skills in Need of Instruction
Activity Analysis
Name: _______________________________ Page:
Date: _______________________________
Sub-environment/Class: _________________________
Time
Classroom Activity Steps/ Natural Cues
What Other Students Are Doing
Target Student Performance
(+/-)
Comments
Skills in Need of Instruction

9. ASK: What am I requiring students to do?
Bryant, D.P., Smith, D. D., & Bryant, B. R. (2008). Teaching students with special needs in inclusive classrooms. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. A
ASK: What am I requiring students to do? D
DETERMINE the prerequisite skills of the task.
ANALYZE the student’s strengths and needs. P
PROPOSE and implement adaptations T
TEST to determine if adaptations helped the student
Standards/ Lesson Plan
Observe steps ALL students are doing to achieve the standard
Observe what TARGET student is doing—what steps can do.
Identify TARGET STUDENT outcomes and adaptations needed based on observation
Create a DATA collection plan.
Bryant, D.P., Smith, D. D., & Bryant, B. R. (2008). Teaching students with special needs in inclusive classrooms. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

10. Skills in Need of Instruction
Activity Analysis
Name: _______________________________ Page:
Date: _______________________________
Sub-environment/Class: _________________________
Time
Classroom Activity Steps/ Natural Cues
What Other Students Are Doing
Target Student Performance
(+/-)
Comments
Skills in Need of Instruction

12. Why Do You Answer the Phone?
Stimulus
(Cue/Signal)
Prompt
(Reminder)
Response
(Behavior)
Consequence (Give/Take)
Effect
(Up/Down) 
Phone Rings
Who could that be?
Attention and convers- ation
More likely to answer phone in future
Answer:
“Hello”

13. Teaching
Teaching is the process of arranging instructional stimuli that result in behavior change for the learner.
Teaching requires the establishment of a learning context.
Teaching requires behavior change on the part of the learner.
Teaching students to respond to specific stimuli is a teacher’s basic job.

14. How do I achieve stimulus control (teaching)?
Associate correct response with antecedent stimuli.
Differently reinforce responding in presence of antecedent stimuli.
Give positive reinforcement for correct responding
Withhold positive reinforcement for incorrect responding (extinction)

15. Stimulus Control
Stimulus control refers to change in the likelihood of a response when a stimulus is presented.
The stimulus is a signal that if the response is performed, a predictable outcome (consequence) is likely.
If a person responds one way in the presence of a stimulus and another in its absence, than that stimulus is said to “control” behavior.
A traffic light is an example

16. Stimulus control and teaching
For any skill, teach a) what, b) when, c) why.
What = the new response (skill)
When = the stimulus that signals when to perform the new response
Why = what is the likely consequence (reward)

17. Teaching and Stimulus Control
Define the naturally occurring pattern
Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response -> Consequence
Define what you will “add” to assist learning.
Prompt Extra Reward
or Correction

18. How to develop stimulus control (Note what you ADD to the natural context)
Begin by pretest, then defining (a) the new response[R], (b) the stimulus that should control the response[S1], and (c) the natural reward [Sr+].
Pretest to document absence of Sd  R
Present the stimulus (S1)
Prompt the new response (R)
Deliver a reward (Sr+) + extra reward
Withhold the reward when either
R1 occurs when S1 has not be presented, or
R1 does not occur when S1 is presented.

19. Stimulus control and teaching
For any skill, teach a) what, b) when, c) why.
What = the new response (skill)
When = the stimulus that signals when to perform the new response
Why = what is the likely consequence (reward)

20. Building Stimulus Control
Teach saying “thank you” when someone gives you something.
Test to determine if skill exists
Identify “pre-requisites”
Define “natural” behavioral elements
receive --> “thank you” --> “you’re welcome”
What do you add to teach
Add prompt (“say thank you”)
Add reward (“excellent job saying thank you”)
Multiple opportunities to practice (fade extras)
Test to determine if skill is learned

21. Teaching and Stimulus Control: Examples
Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response-> Consequence
None-> “car”-> /car/-> info from reading
What do you add?

22. Consequences Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response -> Consequence (Contingency)
Consequences follow a target response
Contingent consequences are delivered only after the target response occurs.
Consequences affect the future likelihood of the response.
Rewarding consequences increase the likelihood of the target response.
Aversive consequences decrease the likelihood of the target response.

23. Consequences There are 5 major classes of consequences
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Negative punishment
Extinction
To determine the type/class of consequence:
Examine the effect on future occurrence of the behavior (increase or decrease?)
Examine the action involved in the consequence (give/remove/withhold)

24. Consequences

25. Consequences Examples
Define the target response
Define the consequence
Define the effect on future occurrence of the behavior.
Define the type of action involved in the consequence (give, remove).
Define the behavioral principle demonstrated

26. Consequences Examples (target response is underlined)
Over time, Darin (age 5) has become more likely to line up when given the instruction “time to line up” as a result of contingent praise from Ms. Dawson when he lines up.
Darin screamed, and Ms. Dawson said “Darin you be quiet.” He immediately stopped screaming and smiled. Over time, however, his rate of screaming in class has increased.

27. Consequences Examples (target response is underlined)
Over time Ellen’s talking out in class decreased during instructional presentations as a result of everyone ignoring her talk-outs (previously she received a lot of peer attention).
Over time Ellen has become more on task during independent seat work periods since Mr. Evan’s started giving out “Worker Rewards” for students who were on-task.

28. Consequences Examples (target response is underlined)
Over time Jim (age 9) has become less likely to push his way to the front of the line during recess since the teachers took away recess time for each instance of pushing.
Elaine volunteered answers in class when the teacher asked for volunteers, but about 25% of the time she would be wrong, and the teacher would scowl and tell her she was wrong. She now volunteers less often.

29. Consequences Examples (target response is underlined)
Over time Elaine was more likely to scream when given a math assignment as a result of the assignment being removed as soon as she screamed.
Tyron became more likely to become quiet, look down and whimper when other children would talk to him as a result of other children leaving him alone when he engaged in these behaviors.

30. Consequences Examples (target response is underlined)
Gwen’s attendance at choir has decreased as a result of Ms. Emerson’s repeated congratulations on Gwen’s “wonderful voice.”
Eric (age 8) has become more likely to tease and taunt Angelissa even though Angelissa consistently hits or yells at Eric when he teases her.

31. Effective Instruction: We Must Determine the Nature of the Problem
Focus
Behavior not in repertoire of student
-SKILL DEFICIT
Teach HOW
Student can do behavior but does not -PERFORANCE DEFICIT
teach WHEN & WHY
Does the student not know how or do they know how but choose not to?

32. Errorless learning
Train discrimination without errors (shaping stimulus control)
Refined form of decreasing prompts
Alterations of features of the stimulus (Sd) OR Stimulus property
Student’s name on white card other student’s name on black card.
Card gradually darkened.
No incorrect choices and discriminated on relevant stimulus properties.

33. Errorless learning Definition Use Rationale
Using prompts to preclude a student from making an incorrect response
when students are not learning effectively and efficiently with other procedures
1 effective positive teacher/student interaction 3 fewer inappropriate social behaviors 4 students learn little from repeated errors
SUCCESS BEGETS SUCCESS AND FAILURE BEGETS FAILURE
Use
Rationale

34. Errorless learning
Train discrimination without errors (shaping stimulus control)
Refined form of decreasing prompts
Alterations of features of the stimulus (Sd) OR Stimulus property
Student’s name on white card other student’s name on black card.
Card gradually darkened.
No incorrect choices and discriminated on relevant stimulus properties.

35. Error Correction
When errors occur, correct immediately with minimal feedback
Provide a second opportunity to respond correctly
Reinforce (reward) immediately!
Must be explicit / specific.

36. Teaching Applications: Prompts
Defined:
Any antecedent stimulus ADDED to the presentation that increases the likelihood of correct responding.
Examples:
Verbal, gesture, physical, embedded (visual, auditory)
Modeling
Precorrection

37. Types of Prompts Verbal Prompts Visual Modeling
Rules: “Nouns are a person, place, or thing”
Instructions—when specific
Hints
Visual
Pictures, examples of correct answers, number lines, multiplication charts, visual schedules, diagram of steps, scripts
Modeling
Physical Prompting/ Guidance
Partial, Full

38. What makes a good prompt?
Increases likelihood of correct responding
Focuses attention on relevant features of task (Sd)
Ease of delivery
Ease of removal across trials
Good prompts are determined by the demands of the task AND the presenting skills of the learner.
As weak as possible (least intrusive)
Should be faded as rapidly as possible

39. Prompt Examples: What prompts might be useful?
Natural Sd  Target Behavior  Consequence
(Prompt)
Teaching cursive writing.
Teaching swallowing when too much saliva in mouth.
Teaching Carl how to ask to enter a wall ball game.
Teaching Emily to move from one task to another without help.
Teaching Phil to wait at snack without grabbing food.

40. Ongoing Class Activity: Provide examples of these methods for teaching a basic skill in a content area
Prompting
Modeling
Verbal prompt
Visual Prompt
Fading
Shaping
Chaining

41. Teaching Applications: Fading
Defined: Stimulus Fading
The gradual reduction or removal of a prompt.
Fading is a process for transferring stimulus control.
Examples:
Change in physical features (dashed lines)
Change in specificity of verbal prompts (“pick up the screwdriver”…to… “what’s next”)
Time delay (“Prompt+Sd”….to… “Prompt….Sd”)

42. Establishing Stimulus Control
Time delay:
begin with a prompt that works and then increase the DELAY between presentation of the target stimulus and the added prompt
fixed
Progressive
Sd +Prompt  response
Sd ….Prompt  response
Sd ….response

43. Fading Prompts
Increasing Assistance (Least-to-Most Prompts)—start with least intrusive and add more intrusive if necessary.
Graduated Guidance (Hand-over-hand, physical guidance)—reducing full guidance to “shadowing”.
Time Delay—wait several seconds before prompting to allow student to respond.
Decreasing Assistance (Most-to-Least Prompts)—move to less intrusive prompt when behavior occurs reliably

44. How would you fade these prompts?
Verbal prompt “move it to the tens” during two digit addition to prompt carrying.
Verbal prompt “ask nicely” when prompting Elsie to ask for toys/food, etc.
Physical prompt “touch on arm” as student points to communication board.
Gesture prompt, pointing to the correct color when asked to touch “yellow, etc”
Embedded prompt, dashed lines for writing

45. Ongoing Class Activity: Provide examples of these methods for teaching a basic skill in your content area.
Prompting
Modeling
Verbal prompt
Visual Prompt
Fading
Shaping
Chaining

46. Teaching Applications: Shaping
Defined
Teaching new behaviors through differential reinforcement of successive approximations of correct responding.
Differential reinforcement for shaping means that responses that meet a certain criterion are reinforced, while those that do not meet the criterion are not.
The Sd and reward are constant. What changes is the rule for delivering the reward. The goal is to improve the precision of the new skill.

47. Establishing Stimulus Control: Teaching New Behaviors
Shaping:
Students learn new things when a teacher “shapes” an existing response into the desired behavior.
Advantages of shaping:
faster than waiting for a correct response
learner succeeds at a high rate
still kind of slow because you are waiting for the learner

48. Designing Successful Shaping Programs
Identify the terminal behavior (end result)
Identify the initial behavior
Identify intermediate behaviors
Determine the size of steps toward the goal
Reinforce successive approximations of the behavior
Monitor progress
Example student accessing a switch

49. Shaping Example
Problem behavior: Students are off-task about 80% of the time when working with a partner. Off-topic conversation occurs and work is not completed.
Define the terminal behavior.
Define the initial behavior.
What will our “successive approximations” be?

50. Shaping: How would you use shaping to..
Develop skill of saying “thank you” (in different ways) to peers.
Develop skill of reading ninth grade material at 150 words correct per minute.
Develop ability of a 14 year old to stay in PE class for 10 min without screaming.

51. Ongoing Class Activity: Provide examples of these methods for teaching a basic skill in your content area.
Prompting
Modeling
Verbal prompt
Visual Prompt
Shaping
Fading
Chaining

52. Chaining A procedure to teach complex skills. Main idea Two approaches
Reinforce combinations of simple behaviors so they become an integrated, whole.
Based on “task analysis” logic
Requires a “task” that is organized into a sequence of “responses.” Each of the responses serves as a “link” in “chain of behavior”
Main idea
The reward at the end of a chain will maintain all the other responses in the chain. The goal is to teach that each step has an Sd-> R. Each R generates a new Sd until the final step which ends with a Sr+ (reward).
Two approaches
Forward chaining
Backward chaining

53. Forward Chaining Defined: Examples Teach step 1
Perform the rest of the steps so student experiences the final outcome.
Gradually have the student do more and more of the task (step 1, then step 1 & 2, then steps 1, 2 & 3…)
Examples
Shoe tying
Making a sandwich
Addition

54. Forward Chaining
Student does FIRST STEP, teacher does the rest of chain.
Keep adding steps until student completes entire chain.
Reinforce student for completing the desired number of steps requested by the teacher.
Useful when prompting is difficult.

55. Backward Chaining
Teacher does all but last step, student completes LAST STEP.
Keep adding steps until student completes entire chain
Reinforce student for completing the desired number steps requested bythe teacher.
Often used with functional skills
Student can perform steps with prompts.

56. Backward Chaining Defined Main idea is the same as forward chaining.
Perform the initial steps of the task, and then “teach” the last step (which leads to the reinforcer). Gradually move backward until the student does all the steps.
Main idea is the same as forward chaining.
Build the small steps into a large task.
Focus on the terminal reinforcer.
Identify how each step leads to the next step.

57. Activity: Provide examples of these methods for teaching a skill in your classroom
Prompting
Modeling
Verbal prompt
Visual Prompt
Shaping
Fading
Chaining

58. Maintenance Durability of performance over time
Durability of stimulus control over time
Continued performance when instructional conditions are removed

59. Examples
Having learned to use hand-raises to obtain teacher assistance during the first week of school, Caesar continued to use the appropriately strategy the rest of the school year.
After learning how to successfully use “look cool & walk away” during peer conflicts in 8th grade, Cleo continued to use the strategy in 9th & 10th grades.

60. Generalization
Predictable/appropriate responding in noninstructional or nontraining conditions
Transfer of stimulus control from trained to nontrained antecedent stimuli

61. Example
Caesar learns to raise his hand to ask for teacher assistance in homeroom. In social studies & math periods of the day, he also uses hand raises to ask for assistance. He doesn’t use hand raises at home at dinner table.
Generalized responding