1. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Research Methods in Psychology Introduction

2. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The Science of Psychology  Psychologists develop theories conduct research answer questions about behavior and mental processes

3. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Example: Media Violence and Aggression  Exposure to media violence causes increase in aggressive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors short- and long-term effects  Effects of media violence consistent across  research studies and methods  people  types of media

4. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Media Violence and Aggression, continued  Long-term studies childhood exposure to media violence → adult aggression  Theories about exposure to violence “activates” aggressive cognitions and arousal models aggressive behaviors desensitizes people to violence

5. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Media Violence and Aggression, continued  Factors affect likelihood of aggressive response following media violence characteristics of viewers social environment media content  No one is immune to the effects of media violence

6. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The Scientific Method  “Scientific method” an abstract concept not a particular technique or method ways in which scientists ask questions logic and methods used to gain answers

7. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The Scientific Method, continued  Two important aspects empirical approach skeptical attitude

8. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The Scientific Method, continued  Empirical approach observe behaviors directly experimentation  systematic control

9. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Science in Context Historical, Social/Cultural, and Moral  Historical Context increased scope of scientific psychology psychological organizations: APA, APS Early 1900s: empirical approach 20th century: computer revolution shift: behaviorism to cognitive psychology

10. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Science in Context, continued  Social and Cultural Context zeitgeist influences  research questions  resources for science  society’s acceptance of psychological research potential bias of ethnocentrism

11. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Science in Context, continued  Ethnocentrism bias understand behavior of individuals in different culture through framework of own culture be aware of cultural influences

12. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Science in Context, continued  Examples of potential ethnocentric bias Do we ask questions of  deficits vs. strengths in aging people?  aggression vs. nurturance and race? Consider research questions that go against stereotypes

13. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Science in Context, continued  Ethnocentric bias influences how we interpret behavior Stereotypes based on dress or hairstyle (e.g., “Goths,” HipHop)‏ Has your behavior ever been interpreted in terms of an ethnocentric bias?

14. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Science in Context, continued  Moral Context high standards for integrity and ethical conduct scientists do not  fabricate data  plagiarize  selectively report research findings

15. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Science in Context, continued  Ethical Principles of APA  Evaluate research dilemmas involving risks and benefits deception animal research

16. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Thinking Like a Researcher  Think like a researcher be skeptical even of claims based on “published” findings and claims presented in the media  Strongest evidence converging evidence but all claims are probabilistic

17. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Thinking Like a Researcher, continued  Science and Legal System Both make decisions based on evidence Legal system  small amount of evidence leads to suspicion  large amount of evidence is needed to convict

18. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Thinking Like a Researcher, continued  Scientific Evidence varies according to strength of evidence description prediction evidence for the cause of a behavior replications (repetitions)‏  Stronger evidence → more confident claims about behavior

19. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Evidence and Decision Making

20. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Guidelines for Evaluating Reports of Psychological Research  Pseudoscience ≠ science  Be skeptical  Scientists may disagree  Research is generally about averages  Go to the original source

21. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Getting Started Doing Research  What should I study? Choose a research topic by reviewing  psychology journals  textbooks  courses

22. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Getting Started, continued  Research hypotheses A hypothesis (plural: hypotheses) is a tentative explanation for a phenomenon stated in the form of a prediction and an explanation

23. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Getting Started, continued  Example hypothesis Research participants who play violent video games are predicted to behave more aggressively than participants who passively watch televised violence because video-game participants’ aggression is reinforced (rewarded) while playing the game

24. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Getting Started, continued  A different hypothesis Research participants who play violent video games are predicted to behave less aggressively than participants who passively watch televised violence because video-game participants have the opportunity to release any aggressive impulses

25. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Getting Started, continued  How to develop a hypothesis Consider exceptions from a general trend Imagine how you would behave in a situation Consider similar problems and responses Perform sustained observations of a person or phenomenon Consider counterexamples for an obvious conclusion Use ideas or theories from other disciplines Read reports of psychological research

26. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Getting Started, continued  Is the research question a good one? scientifically important? scope? likely outcomes? psychological science advanced? anyone interested in the results?

27. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The Multimethod Approach  One scientific method  Many psychological research questions and research methods  different areas of psychology require multiple methods clinical, social, industrial/organizational, developmental, counseling, physiological, cognitive, educational, personality, human factors, neuropsychology, etc.

28. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The Multimethod Approach, continued  No single research method of technique can answer all of the different questions in psychology  Multimethod approach → more complete understanding

29. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The Multimethod Approach, continued  No perfect research method each method or measure of behavior has flaws  Multimethod approach flaws associated with any particular method are overcome by other methods to fill in the gaps

30. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The Multimethod Approach, continued  “Toolbox” with different tools for conducting research  Focus of this class introduce different research tools

31. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Steps of the Research Process  Develop a research question Be aware of ethnocentrism Gain personal experience doing research Read psychological literature  Generate a research hypothesis Read psychological theories on your topic Consider personal experience, think of exceptions, and notice inconsistencies in previous research

32. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Research Steps, continued  Form operational definitions Look to previous research to see how others have defined the same constructs (concepts)‏ Identify the variables you will examine  Choose a research design Decide whether your research question seeks to describe, allow prediction, or identify causal relationships Choose the appropriate research design for your question

33. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Research Steps, continued  Evaluate the ethical issues Identify the potential risks and benefits of the research and the ways in which participants’ welfare will be protected Submit a proposal to an ethics review committee Seek permission from those in authority

34. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Research Steps, continued  Collect and analyze data; form conclusions Get to know the data Summarize the data Confirm what the data reveal

35. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Research Steps, continued  Report research results Present the findings at a psychology conference Submit a written report of the study to a psychology journal

36. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Discussion Questions  Have you heard or read media reports about psychological research? Did you accept the report without questions? Why or why not? Did you have enough information?  What do other scientists say about the topic?  Could the reporter be biased?

37. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Discussion Questions, continued  Do you remember ever being skeptical about research presented in the media? Why were you skeptical? What information would have made you less skeptical? Did a finding seem “too good to be true”? Did anyone have anything to gain through the report? Have the findings been replicated (repeated)?

38. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Discussion Questions, continued  What research topics in psychology interest you? What hypotheses can you form about your topic?  What relationships might exist between variables (factors) you’ve identified?  Can you make predictions regarding your topic?  Can you identify potential causes for the behavior or phenomenon?

39. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Discussion Questions, continued  Does your cultural background influence your choice of topic and hypotheses? Would people with different backgrounds view your topic similarly? Consider people with different sex, age, racial, socioeconomic status than yourself Might these characteristics make a difference for your topic? Are there other cultural variables that would make a difference?

40. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Discussion Questions, continued  What research topics and theories are currently popular among psychologists?  What research topics are investigated at your school?

41. © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Discussion Questions, continued  How might our current social and cultural context be related to the prominence of certain research topics?  To what extent does ethnocentrism play a role in the prominence of current research topics?