1. Chapter 2 Tourism Consumer Behaviour

2. Learning Outcomes
This lecture deals with the factors and influences which, when combined, will influence a consumer’s demand for tourism. By reading this chapter we will:
Have a knowledge of the factors influencing the buyer decision process in tourism;
In particular have an understanding of the theory of motivation;
Have an appreciation of the way that the roles and psychographics of tourists are linked to specific forms of tourism and tourist needs;
Have a knowledge of the key models that seek to explain the decision-making process for the purchase of tourism products; and
Be able to critique models of consumer decision-making in tourism.

3. Individual Decision Making
No two individuals are alike and differences in attitudes, perceptions, images and motivation have an important influence on travel decisions. It is important to note that:
Attitudes depend on an individual’s perception of the world;
Perceptions are mental impressions of, say, a destination or travel company;
Travel motivators explain why people want to travel and they are the inner urges that initiate travel demand; and
Images are sets of beliefs, ideas and impressions relating to products and destinations.

4. Why is this Important?
It is important for tourism managers to research and understand the way in which tourism consumers make decisions and act in relation to the consumption of tourism products. We need to study a tourist’s consumer behaviour to be aware of:
The needs, purchase motives and decision process associated with the consumption of tourism;
The impact of the different effects of various promotional tactics;
The possible perception of risk for tourism purchases, including the impact of terrorist incidents;
The different market segments based upon purchase behaviour; and
How managers can improve their chance of marketing success.

5. Influences of Consumer Behaviour
Figure 2.1 Consumer decision-making framework

6. Elements of Consumer Decisions
We can view the tourism consumer decision process as a system made up of four basic elements:
Energisers(stimulants) of demand - the forces of motivation that lead a tourist to decide to visit an attraction or go on a holiday.
Effectors of demand - the consumer will have developed ideas of a destination, product or organisation by a process of learning, attitudes and associations from promotional messages and information. This will affect the consumer’s image and knowledge of a tourism product thus serving to heighten or dampen the various energisers that lead to consumer action.
Roles and the decision-making process - here, the important role is that of the family member who is normally involved in the different stages of the purchase process and the final resolution of decisions about when, where and how the group will consume the tourism product.
Determinants of demand- In addition, the consumer decision-making process for tourism is underpinned by the determinants of demand.

7. Motivation
Motivation is defined as ‘causing a person to act in a certain way’. Approaches to motivation:
Maslow
Dann
McIntosh, Goeldner and Ritchie
Plog

8. Maslow’s Model
Figure 2.2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

9. Plog’s Model
In 1974, Stanley Plog developed a theory which allowed the US population to be classified into a series of interrelated psychographic types. These types range from two extremes:
The ‘psychocentric’ type is derived from 'psyche' or 'self-centred' where an individual centres thoughts or concerns on the small problem areas of life. These individuals tend to be conservative in their travel patterns, preferring ‘safe’ destinations and often taking many return trips. For this latter reason, market research in the tour- operating sector labels this group as 'repeaters'.
The ‘allocentric’ type derives from the root ‘allo’ meaning ‘varied in form’. These individuals are adventurous and motivated to travel/discover new destinations. They rarely return to the same place twice, hence their market research label 'wanderers'.

10. Motivation Summary
We can see that the dimensions of the concept of motivation in the context of travel are difficult to map. In summary they can be seen to include:
The idea that travel is initially need-related and that this manifests itself in terms of wants and the strength of motivation or ‘push’, as the energiser of action;
Motivation is grounded in sociological and psychological aspects of acquired norms, attitudes, culture, perceptions, etc., leading to person-specific forms of motivation; and
The image of a destination created through various communication channels will influence motivation and subsequently affect the type of travel undertaken.

11. Roles and Decision Making
Typologies can be designed to classify tourists in terms of their roles in decision making
Goffman and Cohen’s approaches are based upon motivation
Family influence is also important

12. Cohen’s Typology Figure 2.4 Cohen’s classification of tourists
Source: Boniface and Cooper, 1987, adapted from Cohen, 1972

13. The Importance of Image
There are various kinds of definitions adopted to describe the word ‘image’ in different fields. For example, the WTO defines image as follows:
The artificial imitation of the apparent(clear) form of an object;
Form resemblance(similarity), identity (e.g. art and design); and
Ideas, conceptions held individually or collectively of the destination.
Gunn (1972) identifies two levels of image.
Viewed in terms of a country or destination, the ‘organic’ image is the sum of all information that has not been deliberately directed by advertising or promotion of a country or destination,
The second level of image is the ‘induced’ image. This is formed by deliberate portrayal and promotion by various organisations involved with tourism.

14. The Importance of Image
We can identify four stages in the development and establishment of a holiday image:
1. A vague(unclear), fantasy type of image is created from advertising, education and word of mouth and is formed before the subject has thought seriously about taking a holiday.
2. A decision is made to take a holiday and then choices must be made regarding time, destination and type of holiday. This is when the holiday image is modified, clarified and extended.

15. The Importance of Image
3. The holiday experience itself, which modifies, corrects or removes elements of the image that prove to be invalid and reinforces those that are found to be correct.
4. The after-image, the recollection of the holiday which may induce feelings of nostalgia, regret or fantasy. This is the stage that will mould(shape) an individual’s holiday concepts and attitudes and will promote a new sequence of holiday images influencing future holiday decisions.

16. Models of Consumer Behaviour in Tourism
We can identify three stages in the development of these models:
The early empiricist(experimental) phase
The motivational research phase
The formative phase and the grand models

17. Grand Models
Grand models can be found to share several commonalities:
They all exhibit consumer behaviour as a decision process.
They provide a comprehensive model focusing mainly on the behaviour of the individual consumer.
They share the belief that behaviour is rational and hence can, in principle, be explained.
They view buying behaviour as purposive, with the consumer as an active information seeker.
They believe that consumers limit the amount of information taken in, and move over time from general notions to more specific criteria and preference for alternatives.
All the ‘grand models’ include a notion of feedback.
The models envisage consumer behaviour as multi-stage triggered by the individual’s expectation that a product will satisfy their needs.

18. The Buying Decision Process in Tourism
The stages of the decision:
need arousal(liven up)
recognition of the need
level of involvement
identification of alternatives
evaluation of alternatives
decision choice
purchase action
post-purchase behaviour

19. The Buying Decision Process in Tourism
Figure 2.5 Model of consumer behaviour

20. Modelling the Process
Engel, Blackwell and Miniard (1986) classified models according to the degree of search or problem-solving behaviour by the consumer:
Limited problem-solving models (LPS models) are applicable to repeat or mundane(usual) purchases with a low level of consumer involvement. Apart from short trips near to home these are not applicable to tourism.
Extended problem-solving models (EPS models) apply to purchases associated with high levels of perceived risk and involvement, and where the information search and evaluation of alternatives plays an important part in the purchasing decision. Models of tourist behaviour fall into this category.

21. The Models
Figure 2.6 The Wahab, Crampon and Rothfield (1976) model of consumer behaviour
Source: Adapted from Wahab, Crampon and Rothfield 1976

22. The Models Figure 2.7 The Schmoll model
Source: Adapted from Schmoll, 1977

23. The Models Figure 2.8 Travel-buying behaviour
Source: from Tourism: Economic, Physical and Social Impacts, London, Longman, with permission of Pearson Education Limited (Mathieson, A. and Wall, G. 1982)

24. The Models Figure 2.9 The Mathieson and Wall model
Source: from Tourism: Economic, Physical and Social Impacts, London, Longman, with permission of Pearson Education Limited (Mathieson, A. and Wall, G. 1982)

25. The Models Figure 2.10 An activities-based model of destination choice
Source: Moscado et al., 1996

26. Is it worth it?
The models are criticised as:
Too theoretical and not grounded in any empirical testing;
They are beginning to date and no new models have been developed since the mid 1990s, yet the travel sector has changed considerably;
They do not help in the understanding of how the market would react to further 'shocks' to the system such as September 11th;
They view tourism from a western developed country perspective, yet we know that China will be the main generator of international travel in years to come;
They fail to recognise the increasingly diverse types of tourist or tourism being purchased – market sectors are more varied and less stable than they were in the early to mid 1990s; and
They fail to predict or identify the behaviour of tourists or markets.