1. Negotiating the social inequalities at low wage among Domestic Labour: A Case Study of Migrant Women Workers in Jammu and Kashmir Dr. Anupama Vohra Associate Professor of English University of Jammu, Jammu-180006 India Email-vohranu@gmail.com Special thanks to Prof. Jasbir Singh for motivation, direction and guidance for interdisciplinary research

2. A person who is paid to help with cleaning, washing, mopping and other menial tasks in another person's home. Domestic work is one of the oldest and most important occupations for millions of women around the world. It is rooted in the global history of slavery, colonialism and other forms of servitude. Domestic work has a long history in India with both men and women working in others homes as servants. Women domestic workers represent one of the largest numbers of workers in the informal economy of India. The last three decades have seen a sharp increase in their numbers, especially in contrast to male domestic workers (Neetha 2004).

4. India’s borders sealed on the east, the north and the west with Tibet China and Afghanistan, and Pakistan. To its south lie Punjab and Himachal Pradesh states of India. The state of Jammu and Kashmir is accessible only from the south. The State has 22 districts-10 each in Jammu and Kashmir divisions and 2 in Ladakh region. Jammu division has Doda, Jammu, Kathua, Poonch, Rajouri, Reasi, Ramban, Samba, Kishtwar and Udhampur districts. Kashmir division has Anantnag, Badgam, Bandipora, Baramulla, Ganderbal, Kupwara, Kulgam, Pulwama, Shopian and Srinagar districts, while Ladakh region has Kargil and Leh districts.

5. Migration refers to the movement of persons from the place of origin to another destination with a permanent change in residence for a number of reasons like social, cultural, economic and non- economic factors. Migration in case of these workers (case studies)is based on push-pull theory- some people move because they are pushed out of their former location, where as others move because they have been pulled or attracted to somewhere else (Ravenstein, 1889). According to Census report 2014-15, J&K is one of the least poverty prone States having merely 4% of people below poverty line. The low incidence of poverty in the state; local domestic workers fast disappearing attract workers.

6. In Jammu and Kashmir state despite the long ongoing conflict a large number of families from Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh have migrated /are migrating in search of work. Whereas the male members take up the job of labourer, mason, painter, plumber, helpers in shops, carpentry, brick kiln, factory works, painting, embroidery, stitching, rickshaw puller, etc., the women of these families work full time in single household or part time in multiple households as domestic helpers: maid servant, cook, kitchen helper, cleaning utensils, washing clothes, ironing clothes, cleaning, dusting and sweeping the house(s) in return for the payment of wages :“Adverse or unsatisfactory economic conditions at the place of origin. are the main factors which stimulates the movement of people to the cities” (Bulsara, 1970).

8. Jammu Municipal area has 4 key divisions- Old city Bakshi nagar and its extension Gandhinagar and its extension Outlying areas; Digiana, Bari-brahmana, Gangyal, Birpur. these migrants are unregistered no substantial data is available make up a large portion of the workforce regular, more punctual, and ready to work even in two shifts

9. Time period of arrival/stay of (case studies) migrants in Jammu city arrival year of interview age at the time of interview 1980- Amma (2010) 70 years 1985- Urmilla (2010) 50 years 1990- Rambai (2015) 48 years 1995- Meera (2011) 35 years 2000- Janki (2011) 40years 2005- Phoola (2011) 37 years 2010 -Monu (2014) 35 years 2015-Saraswati (January 2015) 16 years

10. Reasons for Migration Low wages Repayment of old debts Lack of employment Small size / no land holdings Natural calamities Marriage Family fights/pressure Children’s education Money for construction of house Money for marriage of children, especially daughters Stories of better life Diverse employment opportunities.

11. Working environment Full time- Part time- Weekly- Single work Double work Multiple work Wages range( Rs.500 -5000) depending on locality, type of house and family members

12. DIFFICULTIES OF HOMEMAKER/ BREADWINNER husband decides whether his wife has to work or not where his wife has to work wife has no say and no claim on her wages threats & exploitation-owner of plot/neighbour make shift juggis (huts)on the plots-insecurity exploitation for water, electricity, etc. accidents at place of work

13. physical exhaustion-home and work place work load long working hours physical exploitation not given any value or labour regarded as work. inferior status of their work, both in their own minds, in the minds of employers and in community at their home place extra work no support system-illness, accident, shelter domestic violence Apprehensive fear

14. Due to low wages, long working hours, etc., domestic women workers suffer greatly no incentive for extra work children suffer fear of other migrant communities peace in family better work performance domestic workers have not been accepted by the society to which they are contributing

15. Suggestions for decent working environment to be treated as human beings. The employer- employee relationship is a complex one and is viewed as one of domination, dependence and inequality. Care facility for infants and young children life/health insurance old age security 7-12 days paid leave sunday off seven days salary as Diwali gift annual enhancement of wages

16. Difficulties involved during research resistance permission interference from husbands/male members time non sharing of work space memories “From the beginning of time oppression was the common of woman and the laborer... Woman was the first human being that tasted bondage; woman was a slave before the slave existed” Helene Cixous

17. Bibliography Bulsara, J.F., 1970. Patterns of Social Life in Metropolitan Areas. Research. Programme Committee, Planning Commission, Govt. of India. Ravenstein. 1889. The Laws of migration journal of the Royal Statistical Society.52.24- 301.

18. thank you