1. Respiration
The Four Stages

2. Respiration: The 4 Parts
Respiration consists of 4 parts:
Glycolysis
Link Reaction
Krebs Cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation (the electron transport chain)

3. Glycolysis Glycolysis is the first stage of respiration
Glycolysis splits one molecule of glucose into two smaller molecules of pyruvate
Glucose is a hexose (6-carbon) molecule
Pyruvate is a triose (3-carbon) molecule.
Pyruvate is also known as pyruvic acid.
Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of cells
It’s the first stage of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration, and doesn’t need oxygen to take place. It is therefore an anaerobic process.

4. H2O 6C Number of carbons in the molecule glucose 2ATP 2ADP 2Pi 6C
Hexose bisphosphate
H2O 3C
2 x triose phosphate
4ADP + 4Pi 2H
2NAD
4ATP
2NADH
2 x pyruvate 3C

5. Stage 1: Phosphorylation
Glucose is phosphorylated by adding 2 phosphates from 2 molecules of ATP to give a hexose bisphosphate.
The hexose bisphosphate is split using water (hydrolysis)
2 molecules of triose phosphate and 2 molecules of ADP are created

6. Stage 2: Oxidation
The triose phosphates are oxidised (lose hydrogen) forming 2 molecules of pyruvate
Coenzyme NAD+ (a co-enzyme is a helper molecule that carries chemical groups or ions around) collects the hydrogen ions forming 2 reduced NAD (NADH + H+)
4ATP are produced, but 2 were used up at the beginning so there is a net gain of 2ATP

7. Respiration: The 4 Parts
Respiration consists of 4 parts:
Glycolysis
Link Reaction
Krebs Cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation (the electron transport chain)

8. The Link Reaction The link reaction happens when oxygen is available…
For each glucose molecule used in glycolysis, two pyruvate molecules are made
But the link reaction uses only one pyruvate molecule, so the link reaction and the krebs cycle happen twice for every glucose molecule which goes through glycolysis

9. 3C
Number of carbons in the molecule
pyruvate
CO2 1C 2C
acetate
NAD
Coenzyme A
(CoA)
NADH 2C
Acetyl CoA

10. The Link Reaction Converts Pyruvate to Acetyl Coenzyme A
One carbon atom is removed from pyruvate in the form of CO2
The remaining 2-carbon molecule (acetate) combines with coenzyme A to produce acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA)
Another oxidation reaction happens when NAD collects more hydrogen ions. This forms reduced NAD (NADH)
No ATP is produced in this reaction

11. The Products of the Link Reaction go to the Krebs Cycle and the ETC
So for each glucose molecule:
Two molecules of acetyl co enzyme A go into the Krebs cycle
Two carbon dioxide molecules are released as a waste product of respiration
Two molecules of reduced NAD are formed and go into the electron transport chain

12. Exam Questions
Describe simply how a 6-carbon molecule of glucose can be changed to pyruvate (5)
Describe what happens in the link reaction (4)

13. Answers
1. The 6 –carbon glucose molecule is phosphorylated using phosphate from 2 molecules of ATP (1) and hydrolysed/ split using water (1), to give 2 molecules of the 3-carbon molecule triose phosphate (1). This is then oxidised by removing hydrogen ions (1) to give 2 molecules of 3-carbon pyruvate (1)

14. Answers
2. The 3-carbon pyruvate is combined with coenzyme A (1) to form a 2-carbon molecule, acetyl coenzyme A (1). The extra carbon is released as carbon dioxide (1). The coenzyme NAD is converted into reduced NAD in this reaction by accepting hydrogen ions

15. The Challenge
Can you draw glycolysis and the link reaction….?

17. 3C
Number of carbons in the molecule
pyruvate
CO2 1C 2C
acetate
NAD
Coenzyme A
(CoA)
NADH 2C
Acetyl CoA

18. H2O 6C Number of carbons in the molecule glucose 2ATP 2ADP 2Pi 6C
Hexose bisphosphate
H2O 3C
2 x triose phosphate
4ADP + 4Pi 2H
2NAD
4ATP
2NADH
2 x pyruvate 3C

19. Respiration: The 4 Parts
Respiration consists of 4 parts:
Glycolysis
Link Reaction
Krebs Cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation (the electron transport chain)

20. The Krebs Cycle is the Third Stage of Aerobic Respiration
The krebs cycle takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria.
It happens once for each pyruvate molecule made in glycolysis, and so it goes round twice for every glucose molecule that enters the respiration pathway

21. The Krebs Cycle Acetyl CoA 2C ATP 4- carbon compound oxaloacetate
ADP + Pi
CoA
NADH 4C
6- carbon compound
citrate
NAD 6C
FADH
The Krebs Cycle
FAD
CO2 1C
NAD
5- carbon compound
NADH
NAD
NADH 5C
CO2 1C

22. The Krebs Cycle
Acetyl co enzyme A from the link reaction combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate
Coenzyme A is released back to the link reaction to be used again
The 6-carbon citrate molecule is decarboxylated (loses CO2) to give a 5-carbon molecule
Both citrate and the 5-carbon molecule formed from it are also dehydrogenated (lose hydrogen) in the cycle, to reduce the coenzymes NAD and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide)

23. The Krebs Cycle
Overall, 3 reduced NAD+ and 1 reduced FAD are produced. These coenzymes can now be used to carry the hydrogen to the electron transport chain
The 5 carbon compound is decarboxylated, bringing you back to 4-carbon oxaloacetate. ATP and CO2 are released

24. Products of the Krebs Cycle enter the final Stage of Aerobic Respiration
Some products are reused, some are released and others are used in the final stage, oxidative phosphorylation: the electron transport chain…

25. Products of the Krebs Cycle enter the final Stage of Aerobic Respiration
One coA is reused in the next link reaction
Oxaloacetate is regenerated so it can be reused in the next krebs cycle
Two carbon dioxide molecules are released as a waste product of respiration
One molecule of ATP is made per turn of the cycle- by substrate level phosphorylation
Three reduced NAD and one reduced FAD co-enzymes are made and enter the electron transport chain

26. Oxidative Phosphorylation happens via the electron transport chain
All the products from the previous stages are used in this final stage. Its purpose is to transfer the energy from molecules made in glycolysis, the link reaction and the Kreb’s cycle to ADP. This forms ATP, which can then deliver the energy to parts of the cell that need it. The synthesis of ATP as a result of the energy released by the electron transport chain is called oxidative phosphorylation
The electron transport chain is where most of the ATP from respiration is produced. In the whole process of aerobic respiration, 32 ATP molecules are produced from one molecule of glucose: 2 ATP in glycolysis, 2 ATP in the Krebs cycle and 28 ATP in the electron transport chain
The electron transport chain also reoxidises NAD and FAD so they can be reused in previous steps

27. Respiration: The 4 Parts
Respiration consists of 4 parts:
Glycolysis
Link Reaction
Krebs Cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation (the electron transport chain)

28. Oxidative Phosphorylation produces lots of ATP
The energy needed for ATP synthesis is provided by the electron transport chain. It uses the reduced NAD and FAD from the previous 3 stages to produce 28 molecules of ATP for every molecule of glucose

29. Matrix of mitochondrion
Outer membrane of mitochondrion H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+
Intermembrane space
Inner membrane of mitochondrion
Stalked particle
ATPsynthase
Carrier 1
Carrier 2
Carrier 3
2e-
ADP + Pi
2e-
NADH + H+ 2H
H2O H+ H+
ATP
2H+
NAD+ H+
½ O2 + 2H+
Matrix of mitochondrion

30. Oxidative Phosphorylation produces lots of ATP
1. Hydrogen atoms are released from NADH + H+ and FADH2 (as they are oxidised to NAD+ and FAD). The H atoms split to produce protons (H+) and electrons (e-) for the chain.
The electrons move along the electron chain (made up of three electron carriers) losing energy at each level. This energy is used to pump the protons (H+) into the space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes (the intermembrane space)

31. Oxidative Phosphorylation produces lots of ATP
The concentration of protons is higher in the intermembrane space than in the mitochondrial matrix, so an electrochemical gradient exists.
The protons then move back through the inner membrane down the electrochemical gradient, through specific channels on the stalked particles of the cristae- this drives the enzyme ATPsynthase. By spinning like a motor, this enzyme supplies electrical potential energy to make ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate
The protons and electrons recombine to form hydrogen, and this combines with molecular oxygen (from the blood) at the end of the transport chain to form water. Oxygen is said to be the final electron acceptor