1. Charlene M. Alexander, Ph.D. Ball State University
Career Counseling
Charlene M. Alexander, Ph.D.
Ball State University

2. History of Career Counseling
Guidance and Counseling emerged in the 1920s for the primary purpose of assisting students with occupational selection and placement
The National Defense Education Act of 1956 (NDEA) provided funding for secondary school counselors who were required to have expertise in college admissions and skills to help students resolve personal problems that might be a barrier to academic success.
Guidance and Counseling have been used interchangeably since the terms were first introduced more than fifty years ago. Robert Mathewson (1949) is credited as being the first writer to use the term developmental guidance in the school counseling literature.
The terms vocational, occupation, and job are also used interchangeably. Career refers to the activities and positions involved in vocations, occupations, and jobs as well as to related activities associated with an individual’s lifetime work.

3. Career Counseling Theories
Historical
Trait and factor Theory
Personal-Environment-Correspondence Counseling
Developmental Theories
Ann Roe: A Needs Approach
John Holland: A Typology Approach
Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling and
Sociological Perspective of Work and Career Development

4. Trait and Factor Theory
Trait and Factor means to match the individual’s traits with the requirements of a specific occupation. Proponents of this theory were Parsons (1909) and Williamson, (1939, 1965)
This theory evolved from early studies of individual differences and developed closely with the testing or psychometric movement
The Key characteristic of this theory is the assumption that individuals have unique patterns of ability or traits that can be objectively measured and correlated with the requirements of various types of jobs
Critics of the theory argue that it is a static theory rather than a developmental one. It does not account for how interest, values, aptitudes, achievement and personalities grow.
This approach has been the most durable of all theories. This matching is to solve the career search problem. This theory greatly influenced the study of job descriptions and job requirements as theorists attempted to predict future job success by measuring job-related traits.Developing individual values in the career decision-making process is also a significant factor. This theory assumes that there is one career goal for everyone and that career decisions are primarily based on measured abilities. This theory is too narrow in scope to be considered a major theory of career development

5. Personal-Environment-Correspondence (PEC)Counseling
This theory has a long history and as late as the 1990s it was referred to as the theory of work adjustment.
This theory explores how individuals interact in their everyday lives as well as how they interact in the work environment.
The main points of this theory are:
Work personality and work environment should be amenable
Individual needs and most important in determining an individual’s fit into the work environment.
Individual needs and the reinforcer system that characterizes the work setting are important aspects of stability and tenure and
Job placement is best accomplished through a match of worker traits with the requirements of a work environment.
Research suggest a strong relationship between job satisfaction and work adjustment
Critics argue that it is difficult for counselors to identify occupational reinforces because of the lack of relevant research in this area.
Similar to trait and factor theory, here the emphasis is on individual choice and the characteristics of the work environment. Individual needs and values are significant components of job satisfaction.

6. Developmental Theories
The assumptions of these developmental theories are similar to those of the trait-and factor approach but the primary assumption is that career development is a process that takes place over the life span
Ginzberg and Associates identified 3 stages of career development: fantasy, tentative, and realistic.
Fantasy: (before age 11). Purely play orientation in the initial stage; near end of this stage, play becomes work-oriented
Tentative: (ages 11-17). Transitional process marked by gradual recognition of work requirements; recognition of interest, abilities, work rewards, values, and time perspective.
Realistic: Middle adolescence (ages 17 to young adult). Integration of capacities and interest: further development of values; specification of occupational choice; crystallization of occupational patterns
The developmental process was initially considered irreversible but this was later modified to emphasize occupational choice as a lifelong and coextensive with a person’s working life. Occupational choice is a lifelong process of decision making who seek major satisfaction from their work. This leads tem to reassess repeatedly how they can improve the fit between their changing career goals and the realities of the world of work.

7. The Life-Span, Life-Space Approach to Careers
Developed by Donald Super. Self-concept theory is a vital part of Super’s approach to vocational behavior. Five vocational developmental stages were identified:
Growth: (birth to age 14 or 15), characterized by development of capacity, attitudes, interests, and needs associated with self-concepts.
Exploratory: (ages 15-24), characterized by a tentative phase on which choices are narrowed but not finalized
Establishment: (ages 25-44), characterized by trial and stabilization through work experiences.
Maintenance (ages 45-64). Characterized by a continual adjustment process to improve working position and situation
Decline: (ages 65+), characterized by pre retirement considerations, reduced work output, and eventual retirement.
These stages of vocational development provide the framework for vocational behavior and attitudes, which are evidenced through five activities known as vocational development tasks. These five tasks are crystallization , specification, implementation, stabilization, and consolidation

8. The Life-Span, Life-Space Approach to Careers (Cont.)
Crystallization: 14-18, a cognitive process period of formulating a general vocational goal through awareness of resources, contingencies, interests, values, and planning for the preferred occupation
Specification: 18-21, a period of moving from tentative vocational preferences toward a specific vocational preference
Implementation: 21-24, a period of completing training for vocational preference and entering employment
Stabilization: 24-35, a period of confirming a preferred career by actual work experience and use of talents to demonstrate career choice as an appropriate one
Consolidation 35+, A period of establishment in a career by advancement, status, and seniority
Super (1990) modified developmental tasks through the life span, to include a cycling and recycling through developmental tasks. He views ages and transitions as very flexible and as not occurring in a well ordered sequence.

9. Ann Roe: A Needs Approach
Ann Roe (1956) explores early relationships within the family and their subsequent effects on career direction.
Her main trust was to analyze differences in personality, aptitude, intelligence and background as related to career choice.
She emphasized that early childhood experiences (frustrations and satisfactions) play an important role in finding satisfaction in one’s chosen field.
Roe classified occupations into two major categories: Personal -oriented and nonperson-oriented. Roe believed that those who choose to work in person oriented occupations were reared by warm and accepting parents and those who avoid contact with others were reared by cold or rejecting parents
Within each occupational classification are progressively higher levels of functioning, Roe (1956) contended that the selection of an occupational category was primarily a function of the individual’s need structure but that the level of attainment within the category depended more on the individual’s level of ability and socioeconomic background

10. John Holland : A Typology Approach
Holland (1992) believes that individuals are attracted to a given career by their particular personalities and numerous variables that constitute their back-grounds.
Holland proposed six kinds of modal occupational environments and six matching modal personal orientations: Realistic (R), Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E), and Conventional (C).
Holland proposed that personality types can be arranges in a coded system according to dominant combinations.
Four basic assumptions underlying Holland’s (1992) theory:
Most people can be categorized as one of the six types.
There are six kinds of environments;
People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles.
A person’s behavior is determined by an interaction between his personality and the characteristics of his environment
An individual with a code of CRI would mean that an individual is very much like people in conventional occupations, and somewhat like those in realistic and Investigative occupations.

11. John Holland : A Typology Approach (cont.)
Holland introduces five key concepts to explain the model
Consistency : relates to personality as well as to environment. Some types have more in common with others, e.g social and artistic have more in common than investigative and enterprising.
Differentiation : Individuals who fit a pure personality type will express little resemblance to other types. Conversely, those individuals who fit several personality types have poorly defined personality styles and are considered undifferentiated or poorly defined.
Identity : describes those individuals who have a clear and stable picture of their goals, interest, and talents. Individuals who have many occupational goals, as opposed to a few, have low identity.
Congruence : occurs when an individual’s personality type matches the work environment.
Calculus: the relationship between types of occupational environments lend themselves to research.
Holland’s theory places emphasis on the accuracy of self-knowledge and career information necessary for career decision making. The theory has had a great impact on interest assessment and career counseling procedures.

12. Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Development
Krumboltz (1975) first proposed a social learning approach to career decision making. Now known as the Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC).
LTCC suggest the following four factors contribute to career development:
Genetic endowments and special abilities ( inherited qualities that may set limits on the individual)
Environmental conditions and events ( events beyond the individual’s control, government policies etc.)
Learning experiences (these are experiences learned through reactions to consequences and negative and positive reactions to pairs of previously neutral situations, e.g. all politicians are dishonest)
Task approach skills (these are skills the individual has developed, e.g. problem solving skills, work habits, emotional responses)
This model emphasizes the importance of learning experiences and their effect on occupational selection. Career decision making is considered to be a lifelong process and a very important skill to be taught in education. Positive environmental factors can influence career choice, e.g., positive words and images, such as a booklet describing an occupation in glamorous terms, will lead to positive reactions to that occupation. Learning takes place through observations as well as through direct experiences.

13. Sociological Perspective of Work and Career Development
Developed by Blau, Gustad, Jessor, Parnes, and Wilcox (1956).
This theory suggest that the effects of social institutions on career choice and development is due in part to the interrelationship of psychological, economic and sociological determinants of occupational choice and development.
Individual characteristics that are responsible for choice are biologically determined and socially conditioned through family influences, social position, and developed social-role characteristics.

14. Sociological Perspective of Work and Career Development (cont.)
Factors Influencing the Sociological Perspective
Status Attainment Theory: Parental status greatly affects the occupational level of their children.
Sociology of Labor Markets: institutional practices rather than individual career aspirations shape career outcomes
Race and Gender Effects: Women tend to be concentrated in a narrow band of occupations that pay less than men earn.
School Processes: Ability grouping and tracking of students mirrors the larger society and inhibits student development.
Youth Competence and Outcomes of Youth Work: Adolescent competence regarding mastery of behavior during high school years greatly influences later educational attainment, career stability and marital status.
Family Effects: No relationship found between maternal employment and the child’s social behavior
Work Commitment:The stronger the intrinsic rewards, and match to workers abilities leads to greater worker attachment.
Institutional policies of management affect career development in the following ways (1) only those who work in the core sector of an industry make higher wages than those in the periphery sector; (2) level of education and experience have a greater influence on wages in the core sector than in the periphery and (3) minorities and women have limited access to jobs in the core sector.

15. Theories of Career Development II
Current Theories
Career Development from a Cognitive Information Processing Perspective
Career Development from a Social Cognitive Perspective
Brown’s Values-Based, Holistic Model of Career and Life-Role Choices and Satisfaction
A Contextual Explanation of Career and
Self-Efficacy Theory

16. Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) Perspective
CIP theory was developed by Peterson Sampson, and Reardon (1991).
Refers to how individual make a career decision and use information in career problem solving and decision making.

17. Major assumptions of CIP
Career choice results from an interaction of cognitive and affective processes
Making career choices is a problem-solving activity
The capabilities of career problem solvers depend on the availability of cognitive operations as well as knowledge
Career problem solving is a high-memory-load task
Motivation to make satisfying career choices through a better understanding of world and self is critical
Career development involves continual growth and change in knowledge structures

18. Major Assumptions of CIP
Career identity depends on self-knowledge
Career maturity depends on one’s ability to solve career problems
The ultimate goal of career counseling is achieved by facilitating the growth of information-processing skills
The ultimate aim of career counseling is to enhance the client’s capabilities as a career problem solver and as a decision maker

19. Career development from a social cognitive career perspective (SCCT)
Developed by Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1996)
Goals are:
Find methods of defining specific mediators from which learning experiences shape and subsequently influence career behaviors.
Attend to:
Personal and physical attributes
External environmental factors
Overt behaviors

20. National Standards for Career Development
Standard A: Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions
Standard B: Students will employ strategies to achieve future career success and satisfaction
Standard C: Students will understand the relationship between personal qualities, education and training, and the world of work.

21. Career Development: Standard A Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions
Student Competencies
Develop Career Awareness, Students will:
Develop skills to locate, evaluate, and interpret career information
Learn about the variety of traditional and non-traditional occupations
Develop an awareness of personal abilities, skills, interest, and motivations
Learn how to interact and work cooperatively in teams
Learn to make decisions
Learn how to set goals
Understand the importance of planning
Pursue and develop competency in areas of interest
Develop hobbies and vocational interests
Balance between work and leisure time

22. Career Development: Standard A Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions
Student Competencies
Develop Employment Readiness, Students will:
Acquire employability skills such as working on a team, problem-solving and organizational skills
Apply job readiness skills to seek employment opportunities
Demonstrate knowledge about the changing workplace
Learn about the rights and responsibilities of employers and employees
Learn to respect the rights and responsibilities of employers and employees
Learn how to write a resume
Develop a positive attitude toward work and learning
Understand the importance of responsibility, dependability, punctuality, integrity, and effort in the workplace
Utilize time and task management skills

23. Career Development: Standard B Students will employ strategies to achieve future career goals with success and satisfaction
Student Competencies
Acquire Career Information, Students will:
Apply decision-making skills to career planning, course selection , and career transitions
Identify personal skills, interest, and abilities and relate them to current career choices
Demonstrate knowledge of the career planning process
Know the various ways which occupations can be classified
Use research and information resources to obtain career information
Learn to use the Internet to access career planning information
Describe traditional and non-traditional occupations and how these relate to career choice
Understand how changing economic and societal needs influence employment trends and future training

24. Career Development: Standard B Students will employ strategies to achieve future career goals with success and satisfaction
Student Competencies
Identify Career Goals, Students will:
Demonstrate awareness of the education and training needed to achieve career goals
Assess and modify their educational plan to support career goals
Use employability and job readiness skills in internship, mentoring, shadowing, and/or other world of work experiences
Select course work that is related to career interests
Maintain a career planning portfolio

25. Career Development: Standard C Students will understand the relationship between personal qualities, education, training, and the world of work
Student Competencies
Acquire Knowledge to Achieve Career Goals, Students will:
Understand the relationship between educational achievement and career success
Explain how work can help to achieve personal success and satisfaction
Identify personal preferences and interest which influence career choices and success
Understand that the chainging workplace requires learning and acquiring new skills
Describe the effect of work on lifestyles
Understand the importance of equity and access in career choice
Understand that work is an important and satisfying means of personal expression

26. Career Development: Standard C Students will understand the relationship between personal qualities, education, training, and the world of work
Student Competencies
Apply Skills to Achieve Career Goals,
Students will:
Demonstrate how interest, abilities, and achievement relate to achieving personal, social, educational, and career goals
Learn how to use conflict management skills with peers and adults
Learn to work cooperatively with others as a team member
Apply academic and employment readiness skills in work-based learning situations such as internships, shadowing, and/or mentoring experiences

27. Outline of The Career Intake Interview
Current Status Information
General Appearance
Attitude and behavior
Affect and Mood
Demographic Information
Volunteer/Work Experience
Medical History
Educational History
Family History

28. Outline of The Career Intake Interview (con.t)
II. Discovering the student’s understanding of life Roles and Potential Conflicts
A. Worker Role
B. Homemaker- Spouse, Parent
C. Leisure Role
D. Citizen Role
III. Identify problems that may Interfere with Career Development
A. Problems in living
B. Behaviors that can lead to Work Maladjustment
C. Faulty Cognitions
D. Memory and Persistence

29. Outline of The Career Intake Interview (CONT.)
IV. Developing Goals and Objectives
A. Identify Student Goals
B. Determine the Feasibility of Goals
C. Establishing Sub-Goals
D. Assessing Commitment to Goals

30. Planning for Life Strategies
“Planning for Life” is a national program that recognizes outstanding career counseling programs. The specific elements are:
Clarity of purpose is the sharing of the program’s purpose with school, family, business, and community
Commitment suggest that an investment of resources from all parts of the community is essential
Comprehensiveness ensures that the program addresses all participants in the community with all career and educational opportunities
Collaboration refers to the degree to which schools, family, business, and community share program ownership
Coherence is the term used to make certain that there is a documented plan for all students.
Coordination is the degree to which the program in interdisciplinary and career planning is developmental
Competency is proof of student attainment

31. Career and College Exploration Programs Career Week Speaker Profile Speaking Outline
Introduce yourself with name and title
Describe what you do. Use stories or examples to relate details of every-day work. If you have a visible job that students may already know something about, tell something about your job that might surprise them.
Describe your working conditions including the physical setting, dress requirements, hours, pay range, and availability of similar positions
Relate how you became interested in this occupation
Discuss ways these students might explore a possible interest in your field, such as classes to take, volunteering, internships, shadowing, and others
Tell about related careers in your field, including those with different educational requirements

32. Career Information on the Internet
The Keirsey Temperament Sorter
Merkler Style Preference Inventory Scavenger hunt
net. Org U.S. Bureau of Labor statistics
Occupational Outlook Handbook
Tomorrow’s jobs
Jobstar Guides for Specific Careers
University of Delaware-choosing a major in college
Job search
Kids and Careers
Campbell Interest and Skills Survey