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OPERANT CONDITIONING DEF: a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences
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THORNDIKE’S LAW OF EFFECT
Edward L. Thorndike Studied instrumental learning This is the foundation of operant conditioning Cat studies
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LAW OF EFFECT DEF: if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to a satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened The cornerstone of B.F. Skinner’s theory
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SKINNER’S DEMONSTRATION
Skinner showed that organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favorable consequences Reinforcement: occurs when an event following a response increases an organism’s tendency to make that response
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TERMINOLOGY Operant chamber: “Skinner Box”, a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled Used to control Reinforcement contingencies: rules that determine whether response lead to the presentation of reinforcers
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OPERANT CONDITIONING Key dependent variable is subject’s response rate over time Cumulative recorder: creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time
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BASIC PROCESSES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
Shaping: the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response Important in acquisition Necessary when an organism does not emit the desired response
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BASIC PROCESSES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
Extinction: weakening and disappearance of a response tendency b/c the response is no longer followed by a reinforcer Resistance to extinction: when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer for it has been terminated
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DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULI
DEF: cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences of a response Regulate operant behavior
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STIMULUS GENERALIZATION/DISCRIMINATION
Generalization: Responding to a new stimulus as if it were the original Stimulus discrimination: decrease in response to a new stimulus that resembles the original
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REINFORCEMENT Strengthening of a response tendency
Defined after the fact, in terms of effect on behavior Reinforcement is subjective
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DELAYED REINFORCEMENT
Favorable outcomes are more likely to strengthen a response if the outcome follows immediately
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CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT
Primary reinforcers: events that are inherently reinforcing b/c they satisfy biological needs Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers: events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated w/primary reinforcers
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INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT: EFFECTS OF BASIC SCHEDULES
Schedule of reinforcement: determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer
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INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT
Continuous reinforcement: occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced Intermittent, partial, reinforcement: occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time Intermittent makes a response more resistant to extinction There are 4 types of intermittent reinforcement…
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FIXED-RATIO (fr) SCHEDULE
Ratio schedules require the organism to make a response a certain amount of times to gain a reinforcer FR Schedule: the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses
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VARIABLE-RATIO (VR) SCHEDULE
The reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses
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FIXED-INTERVAL (fi) SCHEDULE
Interval schedules require a time period to pass btwn presentation of reinforcers FI Schedule: the reinforcer is given for the 1st response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed
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VARIABLE-INTERVAL (vi) SCHEDULE
The reinforcer is given for the 1st response after a variable time interval has elapsed Interval length depends on a predetermined avg.
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RATIO vs. interval Ratio schedules produce more rapid responding
Variable schedules tend to generate steadier response rates and greater resistance to extinction
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CONCURRENT SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Concurrent schedules of reinforcement: consist of 2 or more reinforcement schedules that operate simultaneously and independently, each for a different response
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MATCHING LAW States that under concurrent schedules of reinforcement, organisms’ relative rate of responding to each alternative tends to match each alternative’s relative rate of reinforcement Quality of reinforcement earned also effects response rate Assumes organisms are working to maximize their overall reinforcement
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MATCHING AND FORAGING Optimal foraging theory: food seeking behaviors of many animals maximize the nutrition gained in relation to the energy expended to locate, secure, and consume various foods
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POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
Occurs when a response is strengthened b/c it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus
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NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
Occurs when a response is strengthened b/c it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus Don’t be confused by word negative Many everyday behaviors effected by negative reinforcement
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ESCAPE LEARNING Def: an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation Shuttle box
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AVOIDANCE LEARNING DEF: an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring Avoidance learning responses are very resistant to extinction
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TWO-PROCESS THEORY OF AVOIDANCE
Avoidance begins b/c classical conditioning creates a conditioned fear Avoidance is maintained by operant conditioning Avoidance response is strengthened through negative reinforcement
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PUNISHMENT: CONSEQUENCES THAT WEAKEN RESPONSES
Punishment occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response NOT NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT!!!
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PUNISHMENT Can have side effects:
General suppression of behavioral activity Trigger strong emotional responses Physical punishment often leads to aggressive behavior More effective to reinforce desirable behavior than punish undesirable behavior
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