1. © Michael Lacewing Three theories of ethics Michael Lacewing enquiries@alevelphilosophy.co.uk

2. Normative ethics and metaethics Normative theories: theories about what is right, wrong, good or bad which we can use in practical cases, e.g. it is always right to do what will make most people happy Metaethical theories: theories about the very ideas, the concepts, of right, wrong, good and bad, e.g. whether moral judgements are objectively true or false

3. What’s the point of normative theories? The desire to know what to do - practical guidance The desire to understand ourselves The desire to be consistent

4. Happiness: utilitarianism The principle of utility (aka the ‘greatest happiness’ principle): –An action is right if and only if it maximises happiness. ‘Maximises’: compared to other possible actions. The end justifies the means.

5. Reason: Kant The Categorical Imperative: –Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. Maxim: personal principle of choice Universalization: morality is something that everyone can follow

6. People as ‘ends in themselves’ Principle of humanity: ‘Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means but always at the same time as an end’ ‘Humanity’: rational will - we cannot choose to violate the power of choice without being inconsistent

7. Virtue ethics Ethics isn’t just about acting, but about living An action is right if and only if it is what a virtuous agent would characteristically (i.e. acting in character) do in the circumstances –Knowing how to act takes practical wisdom, which involves experience and insight

8. What is a virtue? Aristotle: a virtue is a state of character by which you ‘stand well’ in relation to your desires, emotions and choices: –‘to feel [desires and emotions] at the right times, with reference to the right objects, towards the right people, with the right motive, and in the right way’ Virtues are traits that are necessary for ‘living well’.