1. Unit 6: Testing & Individual Differences
Module 31:
Introduction to Intelligence

2. What is Intelligence? IQ: Intelligence quotient
Intelligence: mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
Intelligence is a concept, not a thing
Intelligence is whatever attributes enables success within a culture.

3. What is Intelligence?
Reification: viewing an abstract concept as if it was a concrete thing
To reify is to invent a concept, give it a name, and convince us that it exists.
We treat IQ as a thing that someone has rather than a score someone attains on a test.

4. What is Intelligence?
In the end, intelligence is whatever intelligence tests measure!
Two controversies:
1. Is intelligence a single overall ability or several abilities?
2. Can we locate and measure intelligence within the brain?

5. What is Intelligence?
Clusters: Groups of skills that comprise an intelligence factor.
Ex. Verbal, mathematical, spatial…
General Intelligence (g): a general intelligence factor that is in every specific mental ability. (Spearman)
Spearman’s “g” was a single intelligence score!

6. What is Intelligence? Multiple abilities!
Thurstone identified 7 clusters of primary mental abilities:
Word fluency
Verbal comprehension
Spatial ability
Perceptual speed
Numerical ability
Inductive reasoning
Memory
Multiple abilities!

7. What is Intelligence?
Savant Syndrome: a person with one exceptional ability, but limited mental ability in the others.
Found in some people living with autism.
This led Howard Gardner to conclude that we do not have a single intelligence, but that we have multiple intelligences.

8. Gardner’s Theory Theory of Multiple Intelligences: 1. Linguistic
2. Logical-mathematical
3. Musical
4. Spatial
5. Bodily-kinesthetic
6. Intrapersonal (Self)
7. Interpersonal (Others)
8. Naturalist
9. Existential

10. What is Intelligence?
Robert Sternberg’s Three Aspects of Intelligence:
Analytical: academic problem solving. Measured on IQ tests.
Creative: generating new ideas
Practical: “street smarts”, required for everyday tasks where multiple solutions exist.
Agreed with Gardner, but a simplified version.

11. Theories on Intelligence
Summary:
Spearman – g (general intelligence).
Thurstone – Primary mental abilities (7 factors/clusters).
Gardner – 9 independent intelligences.
Sternberg – 3 areas that predict success.

12. Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence: the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.
Perceive: recognize emotions in faces, music, and stories.
Understand: to predict them & how they change and blend.
Manage: to express them in situations.
Use: to enable them.

14. Results
Research has indicated that high scale scores on EI tests are associated with:
Greater optimism
Less depression
Less impulsivity
Scores were unrelated to cognitive ability.
EI does not correlate to IQ.

15. Emotional Intelligence
People with a low score on emotional intelligence may have a difficult time interpreting, understanding, and acting on emotions.
They often have difficulty expressing their own emotions and feel uncomfortable around the emotional displays of other people.

16. Emotional Intelligence
In some cases, those who score low may experience low self-esteem, poor self-confidence, and may have difficulty feeling empathy and showing love for others.
Emotionally intelligent people enjoy better relationships with people of both sexes and avoid depression, anxiety, or anger.
Often succeed in career, marriage, and parenting.

17. Intelligence Research says:
Intelligence tests do predict both occupational status and job performance.
Intelligence gets you the job, other things (emotional intelligence) helps you keep the job and be successful.

18. Creativity
Creativity: The ability to produce novel (new) and valuable ideas.
Ex. How many ways can you use a brick?
People who do well on intelligence tests do well on creativity tests.
Creativity led to technology: iPods, Post-it notes, etc.

19. Creativity Five Components of Creativity:
Expertise: well-developed base of knowledge.
Imaginative thinking skills: to see things in new ways.
Venturesome personality: tolerates ambiguity and risk. Seeks new experiences rather than follow old.
Intrinsic motivation: internally driven.
Creative environment: places, peers

20. Intelligence & the Brain
Does brain size and intelligence correlate?
Some geniuses had small brains, while some dumb criminals had large brains.
There is, however, a +.4 correlation between brain size and intelligence.
Learning produces bigger brains (mice in enriched environment).

21. Intelligence & the Brain
Highly intelligent people differ in neural plasticity.
Neural plasticity: ability during childhood to adapt and grow neural connections.
Higher intelligence linked to more gray matter (neural bodies) in brains.
Otherwise, slight correlation between size and intelligence.

22. Intelligence & the Brain
Highly intelligent people perceive information more quickly. (Quick witted)
They also have faster neurological speed. (Process it quicker.)
So highly intelligent people see and process information quicker than others.

23. Environmental Influences
Infants who suffer from extreme malnutrition during infancy average 20 I.Q. points lower than other children (Stock and Smythe, 1963)
Toxins in the environment such as lead found in some paints are associated with reduced I.Q. (Needleman, 1990)

24. Environmental Influences
Intelligence declines with family size; the fewer children there are the smarter you are likely to be (Zajonc, 1975)
Intelligence declines with birth order; first-borns tend to be brighter (Zajonc, 1975)
I.Q. is negatively correlated with family risk factors, such as social class or absence of father figure (1989)

25. Unit 6: Testing and Individual Differences
Module 32:
Assessing Intelligence

26. Assessing Intelligence
Intelligence is whatever an intelligence test measures.
Intelligence Test: A method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using scores.

27. Origins of Intelligence Testing
When laws for mandatory schooling began, testing was needed to separate those who needed “extra” attention and those who didn’t.
Testing was a way to minimize bias.
Alfred Binet: French psychologist who invented the first practical intelligence test to identify students who needed special help.

28. Origins of Intelligence Testing
Alfred Binet (below) and Theodore Simon developed questions that would predict children’s future progress in the Paris school system.
The Binet-Simon Scale measured a child’s mental age.

29. Origins of Intelligence Testing
Mental age: the age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance.
A child who does as well as the average 8 year old has a mental age of 8.
A child can have a mental age smaller or larger than their chronological age.
Mental age of 8, chronological age of 6.

30. Origins of Intelligence Testing
Lewis Terman: Stanford professor who adapted Binet’s test for American school children.
The Stanford-Binet test is still used today.

31. Origins of Intelligence Testing
William Stern: German psychologist who created the IQ.
Mental age
Chronological age
IQ =
x 100
A child with a mental age of 10 and a chronological age of 8:
The average IQ is 100. 10 8
IQ =
x 100
= 125

32. Origins of Intelligence Testing
Terman believed in eugenics and testing was a way to curb the production of “feeble-minded” children.
Eugenics: 19th century movement that proposed measuring human traits and using the results to encourage only smart and fit people to reproduce.

33. Origins of Intelligence Testing
The U.S. government curbed immigration using IQ tests to stop those less intelligent from coming to America.
Thus one major drawback of testing is labeling children as inferior, slow, or unfit.
Prejudice can come from not just skin color, but from intelligence.

34. Modern Tests of Intelligence
Aptitude: the capacity to learn.
Aptitude tests: a test designed to predict a person’s future performance.
Ex. ACT (college readiness), driver’s test (driving ability), Selective enrollment test (HS), etc.
Scores on the SAT and IQ tests has a correlation.

35. SAT and IQ Correlation

36. Modern Tests of Intelligence
Achievement tests: a test designed to assess what a person has learned.
Ex. Tests, quizzes, AP Exam, etc.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): most widely used intelligence test today.
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC): intelligence test for children.

37. Test Construction
Psychological tests must meet 3 criteria to be accepted: standardized, reliable, and valid.
Standardization: give test to a representative sample AND assure that the test is both administered and scored the same for everyone.
It defines what the score you get means!

38. Test Construction
Normal Curve: a bell shaped curve in which most scores fall near the average and fewer scores are at the extremes.

39. Test Construction
Reliability: the extent to which a test yields consistent results.
Repeat the test to see if, over time, you get the same results.
Methods of measurement include test-retest(use same test), split-half (odd-even halves), and alternate form(different forms of same test).

40. Test Construction
Validity: what the test is supposed to measure or predict.
Content Validity: measures a particular behavior or trait.
Driving test should measure driving ability.
Predictive Validity: able to predict future achievement.
ACT must be able to predict college readiness or its not valid.

41. Extremes of Intelligence
No real predictors for intelligence among babies up to 3 years of age.
Beginning at age 4, intelligence tests begin predicting adult scores.
At age 7, intelligence scores stabilize.

42. Extremes of Intelligence
A valid test divides people into two extreme groups: mentally retarded (IQ<70) and gifted (IQ>135).

43. Extremes of Intelligence
Mental retardation: low test score and difficulty living independently.

44. Extremes of Intelligence
Gifted children makes up 3 – 5% of the population.
They are sometimes more isolated, introverted, and in their own worlds, but most thrive and are successful.
High scorers tend to be healthy, well adjusted, and academically successful.

45. Unit 6: Testing & Individual Differences
Module 33: Genetic & Environmental Influences on Intelligence

46. Genetic Influences
Do people with the same genes share comparable mental abilities?
Answer: YES!
IQ’s of identical twins are similar to those of the same person taking the same test twice.
Fraternal twins (share ½ of their genes) are much less similar.
Identical twins raised separately also have similar scores.

47. Genetic Influences
Fraternal twins tend to score more alike than other non-twin siblings.
Intelligence scores of adopted children are more like those of their biological parents.
So…genetics seem to play a large role in IQ.

48. Genetic Influences

49. Environmental Influences
Environmental influences effect children of less-educated parents more.
Children in poor families have more similar intelligence scores.
Meaning that poor environmental conditions can override genetic differences.
Extreme poverty trumps genetics!

50. Environmental Influences
Can intelligence be improved with practice or education?
Head Start Program: Government funded preschool program.
Mostly children below poverty level. Over 900,000 children.
Quality programs increase school readiness, but results fade over time
Small intelligence boost, but experiences after Head Start is important.

51. Head Start
Program that provide early childhood education, health, nutrition, and parent involvement services to low-income children and their families.
Critics point to research that says that there were very few, if any, long term benefits.
You probably were involved in some way!

52. Environmental Influences
Of course…schooling and intelligence is correlated.
IQ scores rise during school year, but drop during summer.
Flynn Effect: worldwide rise in IQ scores since the 1920s due to better nutrition and increasing years of schooling.
More school = smarter kids!

53. Racial & Ethnic Differences
Racial groups differ in average scores on IQ tests.
Bell curve:
Whites: Average – 100
Blacks: Average – 85
Hispanics: Average in between whites and blacks.
Similar results appear on aptitude tests like SAT, although gap is getting smaller.

54. Racial & Ethnic Differences
Environmental factors in racial gap:
Skin color does not differentiate people.
Race is no longer easy to define with more mixed race people.
Asians outperform North Americans on math and aptitude tests. (They also spend 30% more time in school.)

55. Racial & Ethnic Differences
IQ scores of today’s better-fed, better-educated population exceeds those of the 1930s. (Flynn Effect)
White and black infants score equally well on infant intelligence measures.
Each ethnic group had their glory years: Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, Aztecs, Arabs, etc.

56. Gender Differences Boys vs. Girls:
Spelling: Girls are better spellers.
Verbal: Girls are more verbally fluent and remember words better.
Memory: Girls are better at locating objects.
Sensation: Girls are more sensitive to touch, taste, and odor.
Emotion Detection: Girls!

57. Boys vs. Girls Continued:
Gender Differences
Boys vs. Girls Continued:
Underachievement: More boys are at the low extremes of intelligence.
Math and Spatial Intelligence: Girls are better at computation, but boys are better at problem solving.
Also more boys at the highest extremes in math (gifted).

58. Bias
Bias: Differences in performances caused by cultural experiences detected on tests.
Most psychologists believe that the major aptitude tests (ACT, SAT, IQ tests) are not biased.
Their predictions applies to both genders and all ethnic and economic groups.

59. Bias
Stereotype Threat: A self- confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
When one feels that they won’t succeed based on negative stereotypes, they usually perform poorly.
This may account for lower test scores of blacks and women.