1. National Electric Code (NEC ) requires voltage drop to be no more than 3% of source voltage.

2. Hazard - Inadequate Wiring
Hazard - wire too small for the current
Example - portable tool with an extension cord that has a wire too small for the tool
The tool will draw more current than the cord can handle, causing overheating and a possible fire without tripping the circuit breaker
The circuit breaker could be the right size for the circuit but not for the smaller-wire extension cord
Wire Gauge
WIRE
An electrical hazard exists when the wire is too small a gauge for the
current it will carry. Normally, the circuit breaker in a circuit is
matched to the wire size. However, in older wiring, branch lines to
permanent ceiling light fixtures could be wired with a smaller gauge
than the supply cable.
Note that wire-gauge size is inversely related to the diameter of the wire. For example, a No. 12 flexible cord has a larger diameter wire than a No. 14 flexible cord.
Choose a wire size that can handle the total current. Remember: The larger the gauge number, the smaller the wire!
American Wire Gauge (AWG)
Wire size Handles up to
#10 AWG 30 amps
#12 AWG 25 amps
#14 AWG 18 amps
#16 AWG 13 amps
Wire gauge measures wires ranging in size from number 36 to 0 American wire gauge (AWG)

3. Percents as Fractions
3% Equals 3/100
“Percent” means “Per Hundred”

4. Percents to Fractions to Decimals3%
3 / 100
3/100 means 3 divided by 100
A short-cut when dividing by 100 is to move the decimal point two places to the left

5. 3% of 120 volts
3% of 120 =
0.03 * 120 =
3.6 volts
The word “of” indicates multiplication

6. 3% of 240 volts
3% of 240 =
0.03 * 240 =
7.2 volts
Remember…
3% equals 0.03
And
“of” means multiplication

7. Control – Use the Correct Wire
Wire used depends on operation, building materials, electrical load, and environmental factors
Use fixed cords rather than flexible cords
Use the correct extension cord
(a)(2)(ii)(J)
The OSHA standard requires flexible cords to be rated for hard or extra-hard usage. These ratings are to be indelibly marked approximately every foot of the cord. Since deterioration occurs more rapidly in cords which are not rugged enough for construction conditions, the National Electric Code and OSHA have specified the types of cords to use in a construction environment. This rule designates the types of cords that must be used for various applications including portable tools, appliances, temporary and portable lights. The cords are designated HARD and EXTRA HARD SERVICE.
Examples of HARD SERVICE designation types include S, ST, SO, STO, SJ, SJO, SJT, & SJTO. Extension cords must be durably marked as per (g)(2)(ii) with one of the HARD or EXTRA HARD SERVICE designation letters, size and number of conductors.
Must be 3-wire type and designed for hard or extra-hard use

8. Hazard – Defective Cords & Wires
Plastic or rubber covering is missing
Damaged extension cords & tools
Extension cords may have damaged insulation. Sometimes the insulation inside an electrical tool or appliance is damaged. When insulation is damaged, exposed metal parts may become energized if a live wire inside touches them. Electric hand tools that are old, damaged, or misused may have damaged insulation inside. If you touch damaged power tools or other equipment, you will receive a shock. You are more likely to receive a shock if the tool is not grounded or double-insulated.

9. Hazard – Damaged Cords Cords can be damaged by:
Aging
Door or window edges
Staples or fastenings
Abrasion from adjacent materials
Activity in the area
Improper use can cause shocks, burns or fire
Reference (a)(2)(ii)(I)
The normal wear and tear on extension and flexible cords at your site can loosen or expose wires, creating hazardous conditions. Cords that are not 3-wire type, not designed for hard-usage, or that have been modified, increase your risk of contacting electrical current.

10. Control – Cords & Wires Insulate live wires Check before use
Use only cords that are 3-wire type
Use only cords marked for hard or extra-hard usage
Use only cords, connection devices, and fittings equipped with strain relief
Remove cords by pulling on the plugs, not the cords
Cords not marked for hard or extra-hard use, or which have been modified, must be taken out of service immediately
Insulation is the most common manner of guarding electrical energy.
Extension cords must be 3-wire type so they may be grounded, and to permit grounding of any tools or equipment connected to them.
Extension cords when exposed to "normal" construction use can experience rapid deterioration. When this happens, conductors with energized bare wires can be exposed. Conductors can break or come loose from their terminal screws, specifically the equipment grounding conductor. If that occurs, the equipment grounding for the tool in use is lost.

11. Permissible Use of Flexible Cords
DO NOT use flexible wiring where frequent inspection would be difficult or where damage would be likely.
Flexible cords must not be . . .
run through holes in walls, ceilings, or floors;
run through doorways, windows, or similar openings (unless physically protected);
hidden in walls, ceilings, floors, conduit or other raceways.
Other use examples:
Elevator cables
Wiring of cranes and hoists
Prevention of the transmission of noise or vibration
Appliances where the fastening means and mechanical connections are designed to permit removal for maintenance and repair
DO NOT use flexible wiring in situations where frequent inspection would be difficult, where damage would be likely, or where long-term electrical supply is needed. Flexible cords cannot be used as a substitute for the fixed wiring of a structure.
Flexible cords must not be . . .
run through holes in walls, ceilings, or floors;
run through doorways, windows, or similar openings (unless physically protected);
attached to building surfaces (except with a tension take-up device within 6 feet of the supply end);
hidden in walls, ceilings, or floors; or
hidden in conduit or other raceways.
Stationary equipment-to facilitate interchange

12. Grounding
Grounding creates a low-resistance path from a tool to the earth to disperse unwanted current.
When a short or lightning occurs, energy flows to the ground, protecting you from electrical shock, injury and death.
Grounding is a secondary method of preventing electrical shock.
Grounded electrical systems are usually connected to a grounding rod that is placed 6-8 feet deep into the earth.
Grounded - connected to earth or to some conducting body that serves in place of the earth.
Grounded, effectively (Over 600 volts, nominal.) Permanently connected to earth through a ground connection of sufficiently low impedance and having sufficient ampacity that ground fault current which may occur cannot build up to voltages dangerous to personnel.
Grounded conductor. A system or circuit conductor that is intentionally grounded.
Grounding conductor. A conductor used to connect equipment or the grounded circuit of a wiring system to a grounding electrode or electrodes.

13. Hazard – Improper Grounding
Tools plugged into improperly grounded circuits may become energized
Broken wire or plug on extension cord
Some of the most frequently violated OSHA standards
The most frequently violated OSHA electrical regulation is improper grounding of equipment and circuitry. The metal parts of an electrical wiring system that we touch (switch plates, ceiling light fixtures, conduit, etc.) should be grounded and at 0 volts. If the system is not grounded properly, these parts may become energized. Metal parts of motors, appliances, or electronics that are plugged into improperly grounded circuits may be energized. When a circuit is not grounded properly, a hazard exists because unwanted voltage cannot be safely eliminated. If there is no safe path to ground for fault currents, exposed metal parts in damaged appliances can become energized.
Extension cords may not provide a continuous path to ground because of a broken ground wire or plug.
Electrical systems are often grounded to metal water pipes that serve as a continuous path to ground. If plumbing is used as a path to ground for fault current, all pipes must be made of conductive material (a type of metal). Many electrocutions and fires occur because (during renovation or repair) parts of metal plumbing are replaced with plastic pipe, which does not conduct electricity.

14. Control – Ground Tools & Equipment
Ground power supply systems, electrical circuits, and electrical equipment
Frequently inspect electrical systems to insure path to ground is continuous
Inspect electrical equipment before use
Don’t remove ground prongs from tools or extension cords
Ground exposed metal parts of equipment
A typical extension cord grounding system has four components:
a third wire in the cord, called a ground wire;
a three-prong plug with a grounding prong on one end of the cord;
a three-wire, grounding-type receptacle at the other end of the cord; and
a properly grounded outlet.
Two kinds of grounds are required by the standard:
1. Service or system ground. In this instance, one wire, called the neutral conductor or grounded conductor, is grounded. In an ordinary low-voltage circuit, the white (or gray) wire is grounded at the generator or transformer and again at the service entrance of the building. This type of ground is primarily designed to protect machines, tools, and insulation against damage.
2. For enhanced worker protection, an additional ground, called the equipment ground, must be furnished by providing another path from the tool or machine through which the current can flow to the ground. This additional ground safeguards the electric equipment operator if a malfunction causes the metal frame of the tool to become energized.

15. Voltage Drop Formula
K = constant 12 ohms is the constant for copper that is mil thick at 86˚F I = Current Flow in amps L = Length of Wire in feet ACM= Circular Mil Area in Circular Mils

16. Wire Gauge & CMA Gauge (AWG or kcmil) Circular Mil Area 1620 2580 4110
6530
10380
16510 18 16 14 12 10 8

17. Using Voltage Drop Formula
Problem:
What We Know:
There is an extension cord that measures 25 ft. and has a current draw of 5 amps. If the cord is 18 gauge, what is the voltage drop?
K = 12 ohms
I = 5 amps
L = 25 ft
CMA = 1620 CM
(refer to previous table)

18. Using Voltage Drop Formula
State the formula
Plug in the known values
Calculate
Check for acceptability –
since 1.85 volts is less than 3.6, this is acceptable for 120 volt circuit

19. Using Voltage Drop Formula
Problem #2:
What We Know:
There is an extension cord that measures 150 ft. and has a current draw of 5 amps. If the cord is 18 gauge, what is the voltage drop?
K = 12
I = 5 amps
L = 150 ft
CMA = 1620 CM
(refer to previous table)

20. Using Voltage Drop Formula
State the Formula
Plug in the known values
Calculate
Check for acceptability –
since 11.1 volts is greater than 3.6, this is NOT acceptable for 120 volt circuit

21. Using Voltage Drop Formula
In our previous problem, the voltage drop is greater than 3%, it is a code violation.
We can solve our Voltage Drop Formula to find the necessary and Circular Mil Area and determine the proper wire gauge.

22. Solving Voltage Drop Formula
State the Formula
This is a Proportion, so we can cross multiply
Cross Multiply
Solve for CMA (Isolating the Variable)

23. Solving for CMA Remember the Problem:
What We Know:
There is an extension cord that measures 150 ft. and has a current draw of 5 amps. If the cord is 18 gauge, what is the voltage drop?
K = 12
I = 5 amps
L = 150 ft

24. Check for gauge (referring to previous table) –
Solving for CMA
State the Formula
Plug in the known values
Calculate
Check for gauge (referring to previous table) –
since 5000 is between 4110 and 6530, we need to go with 6530, which coordinates with a 12 gauge wire.

25. Control - Electrical Protective Devices
Automatically opens circuit if excess current from overload or ground-fault is detected – shutting off electricity
Includes GFCI’s, fuses, and circuit breakers
Fuses and circuit breakers are overcurrent devices. When too much current:
Fuses melt
Circuit breakers trip open

26. Hazard – Overloaded Circuits
Hazards may result from:
Too many devices plugged into a circuit, causing heated wires and possibly a fire
Damaged tools overheating
Lack of overcurrent protection
Wire insulation melting, which may cause arcing and a fire in the area where the overload exists, even inside a wall

27. Control – Use GFCI (ground-fault circuit interrupter)
Protects you from shock
Detects difference in current between the black and white wires
If ground fault detected, GFCI shuts off electricity in 1/40th of a second
Use GFCI’s on all 120-volt, single-phase, 15- and 20-ampere receptacles, or have an assured equipment grounding conductor program.

28. Power Tool Requirements
Have a three-wire cord with ground plugged into a grounded receptacle, or
Be double insulated, or
Be powered by a low-voltage isolation transformer

29. Tool Safety Tips Use gloves and appropriate footwear
Store in dry place when not using
Don’t use in wet/damp conditions
Keep working areas well lit
Ensure not a tripping hazard
Don’t carry a tool by the cord
Don’t yank the cord to disconnect it
Keep cords away from heat, oil, & sharp edges
Disconnect when not in use and when changing accessories such as blades & bits
Remove damaged tools from use

30. Summary – Hazards & Protections
Protective Measures
Proper grounding
Use GFCI’s
Use fuses and circuit breakers
Guard live parts
Lockout/Tagout
Proper use of flexible cords
Close electric panels
Training
Hazards
Inadequate wiring
Exposed electrical parts
Wires with bad insulation
Ungrounded electrical systems and tools
Overloaded circuits
Damaged power tools and equipment
Using the wrong PPE and tools
Overhead powerlines
All hazards are made worse in wet conditions