1. APES Ms. Tooker 2015

2.  Earth’s atmosphere is composed of seven primary compounds:  Nitrogen (N 2 ) 78%  Oxygen (O 2 ) 21%  Water vapor (H 2 O) 0-4%  Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) <<1%  Methane (CH 4 ) <<1%  Nitrous Oxide (N 2 O) <<1%  Ozone (O 3 ) <<1%

3.  Fundamental nutrient for living organisms  Nitrogen fixation  Returns to the atmosphere through combustion of biomass

4.  Produced through photosynthesis  Utilized in cellular respiration

5.  Largest amounts occur near equator, over oceans, and in tropical regions  Responsible for trapping most of the heat in the lower atmosphere  Low in polar areas and deserts

6.  Volume of increased about 25% in the last 300 years due to the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation  Major greenhouse gas  Humans are responsible for about 5,500 million tons of CO 2 per year.

7.  Contributes to greenhouse effect  Since 1750, methane has increased about 150% due to use of fossil fuels, coal mining, landfills, and grazers

8.  Sources include burning of fossil fuels, use of fertilizers, burning biomass, deforestation  Average time of a N 2 O molecule in the atmosphere is approximately 170 years.

9.  97% of ozone is found in the stratosphere (9-35 miles above Earth’s surface)  Absorbs UV radiation  Human-made ozone is produced in the production of photogeochemical smog

12.  0-7 miles above surface  Weather occurs in this zone

13.  Temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of heat by ozone.  Ozone is produced by UV radiation and lightning.  Contains the ozone layer

14.  Temperature decreases with altitude  Coldest layer  Ice clouds form here  Meteors (shooting stars) burn up in this layer

15.  Temperature increases with height due to gamma rays, X-rays, and UV radiation  Molecules are converted into ions which results in the aurora borealis (northern lights) and the aurora australis (southern lights)

18.  Weather:  Caused by the movement or transfer of heat energy which influences:  Temperature  Air pressure  Humidity  Precipitation  Available sunshine determined by cloud cover  Wind speed  Wind direction

19.  Climate:  Describes the total of all weather occurring over a period of time in a given place

20.  Radiation- the flow of electromagnetic radiation-the method by which Earth receives solar energy  Conduction- the transfer of heat through a substance that results from difference in temperature between different parts of a substance  Convection- the primary way energy is transferred from hotter to colder regions in the Earth’s atmosphere-primary determinant of weather patterns

21.  Evidence for changes in the climate come from data used to measure climate, written accounts, and data from material present at the time.  Tree rings  Fossilized plants  Insect and pollen samples  Gas bubbles trapped in glaciers  Deep ice samples  Dust analysis  Isotope ratios in fossilized remains

22.  Air Mass- a large body of air that has similar temperatures and moisture content  Equatorial, tropical, polar, arctic, continental, maritime

23.  Air Pressure-  Decreases with altitude  Low pressure usually produces cloudy or stormy weather  High pressure masses contain cool, dense air that descend toward Earth’s surface and become warmer  Usually associated with fair weather

24.  Albedo- reflectivity  Ocean water-low albedo  Landmasses- moderate albedo  Snow and ice-highest albedo

25.  Altitude- for every 1,000 feet rise in elevation, there is a 3˚F drop in temperature.

26.  Angle of Sunlight- areas closest to the equator receive the most sunlight and there fore higher temperatures

27.  Carbon Cycle-  The consumption of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) results in cooling.  The production of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide results in warming.

28.  Clouds- collections of water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere  As warmer air rises, it expands due to increasing air pressure and drops in temperature  The vapor begins to condense forming tiny water particles or ice crystals.

29.  Distance to oceans-  oceans are thermally more stable than landmasses  Changes in temperature are more extreme in the middle of the continents than on the coasts

30.  Fronts-  When two different air masses meet, the boundary between them forms a front  The air masses can vary in temperature, dew point, or wind direction.  Warm front- brings precipitation in the form of rain  Cold front- associated with thunderstorms, high surface winds  After a cold front, the weather is usually cool with clear skies.

31.  Greenhouse Effect- the most important greenhouse gases are water (H 2 O), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), and methane (CH 4 ).  Without this effect, Earth would be cold and inhospitable.  If taken too far, Earth could evolve into a hothouse.

32.  Land masses- urbanization and deforestation  Latitude- the higher the latitude, the less solar radiation

33.  Mountain Ranges- Influence whether one side of the mountain will receive rain or not (rain shadow effect)  The side facing the ocean is the windward side and receives the most rain  The side opposite the ocean is the leeward side and receives little rain

34.  Volcanoes- sulfur-rich volcanic eruptions can eject material into the stratosphere, potentially causing tropospheric cooling and stratospheric warming  Volcanic aerosols exist in the atmosphere for an average of one to three years  Over the course of millions of years, large volumes of volcanic ash deposited in the oceans can cause an increase in iron content in seawater.

35.  Human Activity- deforestation, urbanization, release of pollutants including greenhouse gases and the burning of fossil fuels  Acid rain may be produced in urban areas and affect neighboring regions

36.  Due to:  The rotation of the Earth on its axis  Rotation around the sun  The tilt of the Earth’s axis **The sun heats the atmosphere unevenly**

37.  Due to:  The rotation of the Earth on its axis  Rotation around the sun  The tilt of the Earth’s axis **The sun heats the atmosphere unevenly**

40.  During relatively calm, sunny days, the land warms up faster than the sea.  This causes the air above it to become less dense than the air over the sea, which results in a sea breeze.  A land breeze occurs during relatively calm, clear nights when the land cools down faster than the sea.  This results in the air above the land becoming denser than the air over the sea.  As a result, air moves from the land towards the coast.

41.  Once air has been set in motion by the pressure gradient force, it undergoes an apparent deflection from its path.  This deflection is called the “Coriolis Effect”  It is a result of the Earth’s rotation.

42.  In the southern hemisphere, air moving from high to low pressure is deflected to the left by the Coriolis force.  The amount of deflection the air makes is directly related to both the speed at which the air is moving and its latitude.  Slowly blowing winds will be deflected only a small amount, while stronger winders will be deflected more.  Winds blowing closer to the poles will be deflected more than winds at the same speed closer to the equator.  The Coriolis force is zero at the equator.

43.  Fast flowing, narrow air currents found in the atmosphere of some planets, including Earth.  The major jet streams on Earth are westerly winds (flowing west to east).

44.  Transports warm air from the equator where solar heating is greatest toward the higher latitudes where solar heating is diminished  gives rise to Earth’s climatic zones.  Three types of circulation cells associated with latitude:  Hadley  Ferrel  Polar

45.  Air heated near the equator rises and spreads out north and south.  After cooling in the upper atmosphere, the air sinks back to Earth’s surface within the subtropical climatic zone ( between 25˚and 49˚ north and south latitudes ).  Surface air from subtropical regions returns toward the equator to replace the rising air.

46.  The subtropical regions of Hadley cells are characterized by:  Low relative humidity  Little cloud formation  High ocean evaporation due to low humidity  Many of the world’s deserts

47.  The tropical wet and dry (or savannah) climate:  Dry season more than two months long  Annual losses of water through evaporation in this region exceed annual water gains from precipitation

48.  Develop between 30˚ and 60˚ north and south latitudes.  Descending winds of the Hadley cells diverge as moist tropical air moves toward the poles in winds known as westerlies.

49.  Midlatitude climates:  Can have severe winters  Defined seasons  Both tropical and polar air masses are present  Contains broadleaf deciduous and coniferous evergreen forests

50.  Originate as icy-cold, dry, dense air that descends from the troposphere to the ground  The air meets with warm tropical air from the midlatitudes.  The air then returns to the poles, cooling, and then sinking  Sinking air suppresses precipitation  Thus, the polar regions are deserts (deserts are defined by moisture, not temperature)  Very little water exists in this area because it is tied up in the frozen state as ice.  Annual snowfall is relatively small.

51.  Climates are characterized by:  Low temperatures  Severe winters  Small amounts of precipitation (most falling in the summer)  Summers are short  Temperatures are generally low throughout the year  Two major biomes:  Tundra  taiga

53.  Normal State (non-El Nino or La Nina) conditions  Easterly trade winds move water and air warmed by the sun toward the west.  The ocean is generally around 24 inches higher in the western Pacific and the water about 14˚F warmer.

54.  Air pressure patterns in the South Pacific reverse direction  The trade winds decrease in strength and can reverse direction  Pushes the thermocline (Oceanic water layer in which water temperature decreases rapidly with increasing depth) deeper and decreases the upwelling of nutrient-rich deep water  This results in extensive fish kills off the South American coast.

55.  The prevailing rain pattern shifts farther west than normal  The winds pile up warm surface water in the western Pacific.  This is the cool phase of ENSO called La Nina.  Unusually cold ocean temperatures in the eastern equatorial Pacific.  Brings wetter than- normal conditions across the Pacific Northwest, US and both dryer and warmer-than – normal conditions in the southern states.  Winter temperatures are warmer-than-normal in the southeastern US and cooler than normal in the northwest.

56.  Increased temperatures in the southeast correlate with substantial increase in hurricanes.  La Nina is also responsible for heavier-than-normal monsoons in India and Southeast Asia.

57.  Strong, often violent winds that change direction with the season.  Winds blow from cold to warm regions because cold air takes up more space than warm air.  Blow from the land toward the sea in winter and from the sea toward land in the summer.