1. Parenting the Child with ADHD Parenting, Early Experiences, and the ADHD Child

2.  inconsistent discipline (particularly maternal discipline)  poor supervision  low paternal involvement  punitive discipline methods Some parenting styles and practices are uniquely associated with ADHD: Ellis & Nigg (2009); Healey, Flory, Miller & Halperin (2010)

3.  The fact that specific parenting styles and practices are correlated with ADHD doesn’t mean that specific parenting styles or practices cause ADHD.  “...it may be that in the case of ADHD difficult child behaviours drive negative parent behaviours more than the opposite way round” (Healey et al., 2010)  “For example, the child’s behavior may contribute to parental inconsistencies as the parent attempts to control the child, leading to a self-maintaining cycle.” (Ellis & Nigg, 2009, p. 152-153)  No matter what research was examined, all of the links between parenting and ADHD were correlational. These results show correlation, not causation

4.  According to the research, no matter how severe the symptoms of ADHD, parents can make a difference in their child’s social functioning and aggression.  However, ADHD symptom severity also contributes to a child’s outcomes, even if the parents do everything right.  “The model which best predicts the results is one where child ADHD severity predicts more problematic parenting, and that problematic parenting predicts more troubled social outcomes” (p. 200). Both ADHD severity and parenting contribute to outcomes Kaiser, McBurnett & Pfiffner (2011).

5.  McIntyre and Hennessy (2012) refer to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model several times in their research.  They note Bronfenbrenner’s assertion that the family is an important context for development.  They also note that Bronfenbrenner’s model postulated that relationships in the family are reciprocal  Therefore, the child influences the parents and the parents influence the child. Parent-child relationships are bi-directional in influence

6.  higher maternal stress is correlated with higher ADHD symptom severity  increased rates of parental depression, anxiety disorders, and alcohol consumption  disrupted family functioning  worries about child's future  fears of being judged  parental feelings of inadequacy and of isolation Parents of children with ADHD experience high levels of stress. Fischer, M. (1990), McIntyre and Hennessy (2012)

7.  “one goal for treatment might perhaps be to aim to make parenting less susceptible to child behavior or severity.” (Kaiser et al., 2010)  Incorporating the management of parental stress into the treatment regimen of ADHD could improve child functioning and produce more long-term effects in the treatment of children with ADHD. (Healey et al., 2010) Consider treating them both.

8.  Teachers and parents agreed that the use of the “phone call” was seldom the most effective means of communication; preference for a “teacher notebook”  Teachers found that larger class sizes, compounded with the student’s disability, made it especially difficult to communicate with parents.  Suggest teacher pre-service education, professional in- services, and parent workshops to broaden their understanding of ADHD, in general, as well as the implications of ADHD in an educational setting. Improve communication between parents and teachers of children with ADHD. Koro-Ljungberg, Bussing, Wilder and Gary (2011)

9.  An increase in parental involvement in school is not associated with academic achievement... BUT  increased parental involvement in school is associated with increased social skills and decreased behaviour problems.  Comprehensive programs involving training of parents as well as children show promise as a means of improving family involvement in education, family-school relationships, homework performance, and parenting behaviour. Increase parent involvement. El Nokali, Bachman and Votruba-Drzal (2010)

10.  El Nokali, N.E., Bachman, H.J., & Votruba-Drzal, E. (2010). Parent involvement and children’s academic and social development in elementary school. Child Development, 81(3), 998-1005. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01447  Ellis, B. & Nigg, J. (2009). Parenting practices and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Partial specificity effects. Journal of the American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(2), 146-154. doi: 10.1097/CHI.0b013e31819176d0  Fischer, M. (1990). Parenting stress and the child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19(4), 337-346.  Healy, D.M., Flory, J.D., Miller, C.J. & Halperin, J.M. (2010). Maternal positive parenting style is associated with better functioning in hyperactive/inattentive preschool children. Infant and Child Development, 20(2), 148-161. doi: 10.1002/icd.682  Kaiser, N.M., McBurnett, K., & Pfiffner, L.J. (2011). Child ADHD severity and positive and negative parenting as predictors of child social functioning: Evaluation of three theoretical models. Journal of Attention Disorders, 15(3), 193-203. doi: 10.1177/1087054709356171  Koro-Ljungberg, M., Bussing, R., Wilder, J., & Gary, F. (2011). Role of communication in thecontext of educating children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorders: Parents’ and teachers’ perspectives. Journal of School Public Relations, 32, 41-75.  McIntyre, R. & Hennessy, E. (2012). ‘He’s just enthusiastic. Is that such a bad thing?’ Experiences of parents of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 17(1), 65-82. doi: 10.1080/13632752.2012.652428 References: