1. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2013–2014 Update Tenth Edition
Joshua S. Goldstein Jon C. Pevehouse
Chapter Three: Liberal and Social Theories

2. Anti-government protester in Bahrain, 2011.
Protesters in the 2011 Arab Spring movements followed Dr. Martin Luther King’s example as well as specific strategies recommended by an American, Gene Sharp, whose ideas were taught to young Arab activists at earlier workshops in Europe.
Anti-government protester in Bahrain, 2011.

3. 3.1 The Waning War
Liberal theorists see the rules of IR as slowly evolving through time and potentially becoming more peaceful. Evolution results primarily from the gradual build-up of international organization and mutual cooperation (reciprocity) and secondarily from changes in norms and public opinion (identity). Current period is one of the least warlike in history
War is decreasing in frequency and intensity in the 21st century.
Today’s most serious conflicts consist mainly of skirmishing rather than all-out battles.
In 2010, war abated in Iraq but worsened in Afghanistan, Yemen, and Nigeria. Serious fighting continued in Sudan.
Terrorism and minor warfare persist, but the last war between great powers was fifty years ago.

4. Figure 3.1 charts the decline in war-related fatalities since the end of World War II. While some years are higher or lower than others, there is a consistent trend downward in this graph over recent decades, suggesting an overall movement toward less war in the international system.

5. 3.1 The Waning of War Q: With respect to warfare, __________.
A) the long-term trend is that there are fewer wars but more people being killed in them B) the advances in technology lead us to fear annihilation of the world more than destruction of a city C) major wars will continue regardless of trends toward fewer wars D) today’s most serious conflicts consist mainly of skirmishing rather than all-out battles

6. Answer:
D) today’s most serious conflicts consist mainly of skirmishing rather than all-out battles

7. True-False:
Events in the post–Cold War era have continued a long-term trend toward larger wars.

8. Answer:
False

9. 3.2 Liberal Theories
Kant and Peace Liberal Institutionalism International Regimes Collective Security The Democratic Peace
Liberals dispute the realist notion that narrow self-interest is more rational than
mutually beneficial cooperation.
International regimes—convergent expectations of state leaders about the rules for
issue areas in IR—help provide stability in the absence of a world government.
In a collective security arrangement, a group of states agrees to respond together to aggression by any participating state; the UN and other IGOs perform this function.
MyLab Activity 1: Video. Toppling Hussein.
Creative Assignment: Remind students that, as mentioned in the text which accompanies the “Toppling Hussein” video, sectarian violence been present since shortly after the fall of Hussein, and has increased markedly since the first democratic elections in 2005, and the beginning of the U.S. drawdown in 2010.
Then ask students to break into groups to discuss if the U.S. hopes for a “domino theory” of democratization were ever realistic? Remind them that the U.S. acted on a similar theory throughout the Cold War: as one nation fell to communism, it would spread, with the nations falling like dominos.
Form the following groups to represent: (1) the U.S. before the Iraqi invasion, (2) the U.S. just after the fall of the Hussein regime, (3) the U.S. just after the 2005 Iraqi elections, and (4) the U.S. from the period after the beginning of the U.S. drawdown through today. Allow the class, using what they have learned from this chapter and the MyLab video, to ask each group (preferably, in chronological order) how confident the U.S. is in its theory that Iraq will become a successful democracy that will spread a domino-effect of democracy in the region.

10. MyLab Media
Video: Toppling Hussein. Please log into MyPoliSciLab with your username and password before accessing this link.

11. Kant and Peace
Liberal theories of IR try to explain how peace and cooperation are possible German philosopher Immanuel Kant
German philosopher Immanuel Kant gave three answers 200 years ago:
First, based on reciprocity - states could develop the organizations and rules to facilitate cooperation, specifically by forming a world federation resembling today’s United Nations
Second, operating at a lower level of analysis - peace depends on the internal character of governments, specifically the republics, with a legislative branch that can hold a monarch in check, will be more peaceful than autocracies - relies more on identity principle
Trade promotes peace - relies on the presumption that trade increases wealth, cooperation, and global well-being - conflict less likely since governments will not want to disrupt any process than adds to the wealth of their state 11

12. Liberal Institutionalism
Kant’s first answer Rational actors States could join a worldwide federation International cooperation Neoliberal approach
Kant’s first answer - ability of states to develop and follow mutually advantageous rules, with international institutions to monitor and enforce them.
Rational actors capable of forgoing short-term individual interests in order to further long-term well-being of community to which they belong
States, although autonomous, could join a worldwide federation like today’s UN
International cooperation a more rational option for states than resorting to war
Neoliberal approach
Concedes to realism several important assumptions
But states achieve cooperation fairly often because it is in their interest to do so
Reciprocity helps international cooperation emerge - norms and rules are enforced without central authority
Reciprocity also contains danger of runaway hostility - tit-for-tat punishments - but norms mediate states’ interactions 12

13. HAPPY FAMILY
Liberal theories emphasize the potential for rivalries to evolve into cooperative relationships as states recognize that achieving mutual benefits is most cost effective in the long run. For example, the U.S. and Soviet/Russian space programs began cooperating in the 1960s and continue today, with other countries. Here, astronauts from the United States, Russia, Germany, and Sweden share the International Space Station, 2006.
States achieve cooperation fairly often because it is in their interest to do so, and they can learn to use institutions to ease the pursuit of mutual gains and the reduction of possibilities for cheating or taking advantage of another state.

14. As one actor exhibits conflictual behavior (negative values on the graph), the other matches with negative responses. Likewise, cooperative behavior (positive values on the graph) brings reciprocated cooperation in the immediate time period.
Yet, over time, this reciprocity has done little to keep cooperation high—periods of agreement, even those reciprocated by each side, eventually give way to reciprocated conflict.

15. International Regimes
Set of rules, norms, and producers Can help solve collective-goods problems Intervening variables Embedded in international institutions
Set of rules, norms, and producers around which the expectations of actors converge in a certain issue area
Can help solve collective-goods problems by increasing transparency
Intervening variables between basic casual forces at work in IR
Embedded in international institutions 15

16. HEALTHY REGIME
International regimes are sets of rules, norms, and procedures, not always codified into institutions, that govern the behavior of actors in IR. The world health regime includes states, IGOs such as the World Health Organization (WHO), nonprofit organizations such as the Gates Foundation, and others, all working with common expectations about activities to improve health and stem epidemics. Here, Cuban doctors give WHO vaccines to children in Haiti, 2010.
In a collective security arrangement, a group of states agrees to respond together to aggression by any participating state; the UN and other IGOs perform this function.
Several regional IGOs perform collective security functions (deterring aggression) as well as economic and cultural ones—the Organization of American States (OAS), the
Arab League, and the African Union.

17. Collective Security
Grows out of liberal institutionalism Formation of a broad alliance League of Nations United Nations Regional IGOs Success of collective security Issue of failed states
Formation of a broad alliance of most major actors in an international system for the purpose of jointly opposing aggression by any actor
Regional IGOs - OAS, Arab League, African Union 17

18. Democratic Peace
Kant’s second answer Democracies almost never fight each other Democracy more widespread Period of transition
Kant’s second answer - the character of governments
Democracies almost never fight each other
Democracy more widespread as a form of government
Period of transition to democracy may be more prone to war than either a stable democracy or a stable authoritarian government 18

19. DEMOCRATIC TIDE
In 2011–2012, the Arab Spring revolutions catalyzed democratic transitions in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen, with Syria potentially following suit if the government falls there.
In 2012, Burma underwent a rapid transition toward democracy after decades of harsh military rule.
However, military coups took place in Madagascar and Honduras in 2009, Niger in 2010, and Guinea-Bissau and Mali in Iran rigged an election in 2009 and brutally cracked down on those protesting it.
Upsurges of democratic movements throughout the world in recent years testify to the power of the idea of democracy. Because democracies rarely fight each other, worldwide democratization might lead to lasting peace. Here, Tunisia holds its first free election after leading the Arab Spring and reversing decades of authoritarian rule, 2011.

20. North Atlantic Treaty Organization
3.2 Liberal Theories Q: What was the first attempt at creating a collective security system?
United Nations
League of Nations
European Community
North Atlantic Treaty Organization 20

21. Answer:
B) League of Nations 21

22. True-False:
A current example of an international regime is the International Monetary Fund. 22

23. Answer:
True 23

24. 3.3 Social Theories Identities and Ideas Matter Postmodernism
Constructivists reject realist assumptions about state interests, tracing those interests in part to social interactions and norms.
Postmodern critics reject the entire framework and language of realism, with its
unitary state actors. Postmodernists argue that no simple categories can capture the multiple realities experienced by participants in IR.
MyLab Activity 2: Simulations. Using Theory: You are the New Prime Minister.
Creative assignment: Divide the class into five groups, with four representing one of the four key theoretical perspectives addressed in this simulation: realism, constructivism, institutionalism, and feminism. The fifth group will represent a collection of “neutral” consultants. Asking students to utilize what they’ve learned through the MyLab Simulation and Chapter 3, have each group discuss and sketch out what they believe they bring to a given President’s cabinet of eight members. The fifth group must decide on the best possible balance of theoretical perspectives – a cabinet with realists warring against institutionalists, an even sprinkling of theoretical representatives, etc. Each group must choose whether their government is led by a democratic or republican President. Then, ask each group to present what they believe they bring to the President’s cabinet, via their particular theoretical perspective. Allow the fifth group to question, each of the four groups. Finally, allow the fifth group to present what they believe to be the appropriate balance of theoretical representatives.

25. MyLab Media
Simulations: Using Theory: You are the New Prime Minister. Please log into MyPoliSciLab with your username and password before accessing this link.

26. Identities & Ideas Matter
Approach rather than theory Constructivist One strand of research examines how states’ interests and identities are intertwined Another strand of research relies heavily on international norms
Approach rather than theory - interested in how actors define their national interests, threats to those interests, and their relationship to one another
One strand of research examines how states’ interests and identities are intertwined, as well as how those identities are shaped by interactions with other states
States’ identities are complex, changing, and arise from interaction with other states - often through a process of socialization
Societies as a whole also change over time in what they consider to be threatening
Another strand of research relies heavily on international norms and their power to constrain state action
Classroom Activity: Tell students that you’d like to argue that we cannot ascribe specific national interests to states as realists and liberalists do, but rather we must emphasize the role of social interactions and norms in foreign policy, as constructivists do, further suggest that: national interests are socially constructed. In groups, ask students both to identify the top three foreign policy goals of the United States, and ask how these goals were socially constructed and who/what were the primary agents in this construction (e.g., media, history, public opinion, ideology, government officials or institutions, etc.)? 26

27. CONSTRUCTING IDENTITIES
Constructivist theories, based on the core principle of identity, see actors’ preferences as constructed by the actors rather than given “objectively.” These theories may do better than realist or liberal approaches in explaining major changes in a state’s foreign policy goals and image in the world that arise from internal changes and new self-concepts rather than external constraints or opportunities. Examples might include the breakup of the Soviet Union and the election of Barack Obama as president. Iran’s identity as an Islamic revolutionary state affects its foreign policies. Here, the morals police close a barber shop in Iran for giving Western-style haircuts, 2008.
Constructivist research has many strands, and one prominent line examines how states’ interests and identities are intertwined, as well as how those identities are shaped by interactions with other states.
Constructivist scholars emphasize the ideas of shared history, shared alliances, and shared norms.

28. President of Ukraine, Victor Yanukovych
In 2009, Russia shut off natural gas supplies during a price dispute with Ukraine, a dispute shadowed by Russian anger at Ukraine’s efforts to join NATO.
The shutoff left customers across Europe without heat.
In 2010, Ukrainians elected a new president, Victor Yanukovich, who is more friendly toward Russia.

29. Postmodernism
Rooted in literature critiques - pays special attention to texts and to discourses Calls into question the whole notion of states as actors Postmodernists seek to “deconstruct” concepts
A broad approach to scholarship, with roots in study of literature
Pays special attention to texts and to discourses – how people talk and write about their subjects
Central idea: there is no single, objective reality but a multiplicity of experiences and perspectives that defy easy categorization
Postmodernism itself is difficult to present in a simple or categorical way.
Postmodernists seek to “deconstruct” such constructions as states, the international system, and the associated stories and arguments with which realists portray the nature of international relations.
To postmodernists, the realist model is not objective, universal, and accurate but rather narrow and one-sided. 29

30. 3.3 Social Theories Q: Which of the following do postmodernists mainly focus on when attempting to deconstruct dominant beliefs?
Human behavior
State behavior
Discourse
Psychology 30

31. Answer:
C) Discourse 31

32. True-False:
The teasing apart of words in order to uncover subtle meanings, searching for what is perhaps left out, is a particularly Marxist approach to texts. 32

33. Answer:
False 33

34. 3.4 Marxism
Both IR and domestic politics arise from unequal relationships Oppression of less powerful by powerful classes Marx’s theories of class struggle Lenin’s theory of imperialism Revolutions in global south Less visible theories in IR
Both IR and domestic politics arise from unequal relationships between economic classes
Oppression of less powerful by powerful classes - class struggle
Marx’s theories of class struggle oriented toward domestic society
Lenin’s theory of imperialism - applied Marx’s ideas to international system - globalization of class relations - wealthy and poor countries
Revolutions in global south
Less visible theories in IR after collapse of Soviet Union and China’s turn toward capitalism 34

35. RICH AND POOR
Marxists view international relations, including global North-South relations, in terms of a struggle between economic classes (especially workers and owners) that have different roles in society and different access to power.
Disparity of wealth is a central aspect of global North-South relations. Marxists see international relations and domestic politics alike as being shaped by a class struggle between the rich and the poor. In São Paulo, Brazil, rich and poor neighborhoods sit side by side.

36. Governmental agencies Economic agencies
3.4 Marxism Q: Marxist approaches to IR hold that both IR and domestic policies arise from unequal relationships between which of the following?
Political elites
Economic classes
Governmental agencies
Economic agencies 36

37. Answer:
B) Economic classes 37

38. True-False:
The utilization of taxes to sway the working classes at home is an example of a buy off. 38

39. Answer:
False 39

40. 3.5 Peace Studies
Seeks to shift focus of IR away from interstate level of analysis Conflict resolution Militarism Positive peace - structural violence World government Peace movements Nonviolence, pacifism
Seeks to shift focus of IR away from interstate level of analysis and toward a broad conception of social relations at individual, domestic, and global levels of analysis
Conflict resolution
Mediation
Arbitration
Militarism
Positive peace - structural violence
World government
Peace movements
Nonviolence, pacifism
Discussion Question: Inform the class that years ago the U.S. defined ‘peace’ as “perpetual pre-hostility,” a superlative example of negative peace. Then ask them what must be present in a state for a just and sustainable positive peace to exist. Are access to food and clean drinking water key? Is education for women and children a necessity? What role do security from physical harm, and the preservation of other inviolable human rights play in creating a positive peace? Ask for examples of states currently in a position of negative peace, an example of states currently in a position of positive peace. Finally, discuss with the students a state which seems quite on the border, or on the brink of entering from one into another state of peace.
Lecture Starter: Briefly review various methods employed in conflict resolution that are outlined in this chapter, and discuss how they’ve been applied in recent historical scenarios, such as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Choose one of the conflict resolution approaches addressed in the chapter and demonstrate a strategic plan for peace talks for a real or hypothetical conflict situation.

41. SHADOW OF WAR
Militarism in a culture, or the lack thereof, can influence foreign policy. In societies at war, children’s psychological trauma contributes to intergroup conflicts decades later. Generations of Palestinians have grown up in a society affected by violent conflict. This Palestinian girl, walking between Israeli troops and Palestinian stone-throwers in the West Bank in 2010, has lived around violent conflict her whole life, as have her parents and grandparents.
For scholars in peace studies, militarism in many cultures contributes to states’ propensity to resort to force in international bargaining.
Most peace studies scholars share a skepticism that state leaders left to themselves would ever achieve positive peace.

42. GIVE PEACE A CHANCE
The most commonly studied method of exerting pressure on governments to pursue peace is through peace movements — people taking to the streets in protest against war and militarism.
In the spring of 2009, thousands of protesters took to the streets of Northern Ireland for silent vigils to against the murders of two soldiers and a policeman by dissident republicans.
Peace demonstrators play a role in many conflicts. Here, demonstrators respond to an outbreak of violence in Belfast, Northern Ireland, 2013.

43. 3.6 Peace Studies Q: Scholars of peace studies emphasize what level of analysis when recommending strategies for achieving peace?
Individual
National
International
Global 43

44. Answer:
A) Individual 44

45. True-False:
In international conflicts, peaceful strategies for resolving those conflicts are in competition with violent approaches. 45

46. Answer:
True 46

47. 3.6 Gender Theories
Why Gender Matters The Masculinity of Realism Gender in War and Peace Women in IR Difference Feminism versus Liberal Feminism Postmodern Feminism
Gender scholarship has made recent inroads into international relations scholarship.
There are many strands of gender scholarship, though all seek to understand how gender influences the way that IR works.
At very least, feminist IR scholars ask that the field acknowledges that it is gendered in nature.
Beyond a basic agreement that gender is important, there is no such thing as a “feminist approach” to IR.
Discussion Question: Address the role of gender quotas in electing legislatures. Ask students if they believe this is an ethical approach to issue of gender in politics. Ask students if the U.S. should employ a similar system. Finally, ask students if such a system would benefit or harm the cause of feminism.

48. Why Gender Matters
Feminist scholarship Difference feminism Liberal feminism Postmodern feminism
Difference feminism
Valorizes the feminine; role as nurturers/peacemakers
Real difference between the genders, biologically or culturally determined
Liberal feminism
Rejects claims as being based on stereotyped gender roles
Emphasis on male-female equality
Postmodern feminism - gender differences important but arbitrary and flexible
Classroom Activity: Introduce the three strands of feminist scholarship (the difference, liberal, and postmodern) discuss the concept of the exclusion of women and genders studies in international relations and the consequences that result from that omission. Then ask students to discuss the perceived difficulties that arise when they are asked to apply these various feminist approaches to world political issues and events. Have students put forward arguments for why one approach might be more appropriate than another to a given particular part of the world, taking into account its distinct cultural norms. 48

49. A GUY THING
Beyond revealing the hidden assumptions about gender in a field of scholarship, feminist scholars often challenge traditional concepts of gender as well.
On some core issues, the different strands of feminism have conflicting views, creating interesting debates within feminism.
Feminists from various theoretical traditions agree that the gender makeup of international summits and national governments matters. Here, China’s old (left) and new (right) ruling group mark the transition of power, 2012.

50. The Masculinity of Realism
Difference feminism provides a perspective from which to re-examine the core assumptions of realism International system based on feminine principles
Difference feminism provides a perspective from which to reexamine the core assumptions of realism - especially the assumptions of autonomy, from which flow the key realist concepts of sovereignty and anarchy
International system based on feminine principles - greater importance to interdependence of states 50

51. ROLE REVERSAL
In the spring of 2011, Forbes Magazine featured “The 10 Most Powerful Women in the UN.” The feature included, for instance, Valerie Amos. She was appointed in July 2010, and worked as Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief, making her responsible for directing strategies for handling complex man-made emergencies and natural disasters all over the world.
Feminist scholars emphasize the importance of gender roles in IR, especially the traditional distinction between males in the political-military roles and females in the domestic-family roles. Changing this division could change IR, they think. Here, top U.S. officials attend the UN General Assembly, 2010.

52. Gender in War and Peace
Hidden assumption of masculinity in realism Gender gap
Difference feminists see in realism a hidden assumption of masculinity in their focus on military force as the key form of leverage in IR 52

53. WOMEN POWER
Difference feminists see women as inherently less warlike than men and more adept at making peace because of their potential and actual experiences as mothers. In this view, women play distinct roles in wartime and also have distinct needs. During the long civil war in Liberia in the 1990s, women organized mass protests for peace and insisted the male faction leaders end the war. Their leader, Leymah Gbowee, shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 2011.
Difference feminists thought that once women won the right to vote, that women would vote for peace and against war, changing the nature of foreign policy, but women generally voted as their husbands did.
Similarly, decades later when women participated in liberation struggles against colonialism in the global South, some feminists thought such participation would change foreign policies in the newly independent countries, but in general such changes did not materialize.

54. Women in IR
Liberal feminists skeptical of difference Liberal feminists believe that when women are allowed to participate in IR, they play the game basically the same ways men do, with similar results For liberal feminists, the main effect of gender imbalance in IR is wasted talent Women in U.S. foreign policy establishment, U.S. Congress, legislatures worldwide Women in combat
Liberal feminists are skeptical of difference feminists’ critiques of realism.
They believe that when women are allowed to participate in IR, they play the game basically the same way men do, with similar results.
Focus is on integration of women into key foreign-policy-making and military roles.
Eighty percent of U.N. General Assembly is male.
Heads of U.N. delegations are ninety-seven percent male.
Globally, eighteen percent of parliaments are female.
Liberal feminism focuses on the integration of women into the primarily male-dominated areas of foreign policymaking and the military.
Evidence: Female state leaders do not appear to be any more peaceful or any less committed to state sovereignty and territorial integrity than are male leaders.
In U.S., it’s difficult to compare voting records of men and women on foreign policy: too few women.
Women as soldiers
In sum, liberal feminists reject the argument that women bring uniquely feminine assets or liabilities to foreign and military affairs. 54

55. COMBAT HERO
Women soldiers have performed as well as men in military tasks, as predicted by liberal feminists. But in state armies, women are barred from virtually all infantry combat units worldwide. Guerrilla forces more often include women, and female U.S. military police in Iraq often participate in fighting. Here, in 2005, a sergeant from the Kentucky National Guard receives the silver star for heroism in combat after fighting off an ambush in Iraq.
Liberal feminism focuses on the integration of women into the overwhelmingly male preserves of foreign policy making and the military. In most states, these occupations are typically at least 90 percent male.

56. Difference Feminism versus Liberal Feminism
Individuals vs. groups Profound differences in IR would occur only if many women participated in key foreign policy positions
Difference feminists argue that men are more warlike on average than women. They believe that although individual women participants (such as state leaders) may not reflect this difference, the participation of large numbers of women would make the international system more peaceful.
Difference feminists argue that realism reflects a masculine perception of social relations and believe that women’s unique abilities will transform the entire system.
Liberal feminists disagree that women have substantially different capabilities or tendencies as participants in IR. They argue that women are equivalent to men in virtually all IR roles. As evidence, liberal feminists point to historical and present day women leaders and women soldiers.
Liberal feminists think that women can be just as realist as men and believe that female participation in foreign policy and the military will enhance state capabilities. 56

57. Gender differences posited by difference feminists mean that one bell curve is shifted from the other, even though the two may still overlap quite a bit (see Figure 3.5).
To take a simple example, a few women are physically larger than almost all men, and a few men are smaller than almost all women. But on average, men are somewhat larger than women.
On various dimensions of capability, the women’s curve is above or below the men’s on average, but there is still much overlap.

58. Postmodern Feminism
Deconstructs realism with the specific aim of uncovering the pervasive hidden influences of gender in IR and demonstrates the arbitrariness of the construction of gender roles Language of realism reflects influences of gender and sex
Line of criticism directed at realism that combines feminism and postmodernism
Postmodern feminists seek to uncover gender-related subtexts implicit in realist discourse, including sexual themes connected with the concept of power.
Archetypes: Just warrior and beautiful soul
Power and potency: State capability and male virility
Realism and liberalism ignore all the sexual aspects of weaponry. 58

59. Alliances that are permanent Pursuit of local interest
3.6 Gender Theories Q: Difference feminists argue that realism involves assumptions of masculinity because of what principle?
Unified actors
Alliances that are permanent
Pursuit of local interest
Anarchic international politics and ordered domestic politics 59

60. D) Anarchic international politics and ordered domestic politics
Answer:
D) Anarchic international politics and ordered domestic politics 60

61. True-False:
Power and potency are likely to be key terms for postmodern feminists as they describe both male virility and state capability. 61

62. Answer:
True 62

63. Chapter Discussion Question
Taking into consideration the central terms of realism, like anarchy, state actors, rationality, and the utility of military force, how have the central claims of realism been challenged over recent years? Use particular recent global political events to add substance to your answer.