1. The Ohio State University Department of Horticulture and Crop Science H&CS 521 Greenhouse Crop Production Light

2. LIGHT!!!

3. Characteristics of Light as They Relate to Growing Plants Quantity (Intensity) –photosynthesis Quality (Wavelength - Color) –photomorphogenesis Duration –photoperiodism

4. What is Light ? Energy in the form of Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR) that produces a visual sensation

5. The “Dual Nature” of Light Particle –light behaving like a “package” of energy –PHOTONS - a particle of light important for plants. Photons are what the plant “sees” (senses) –QUANTA- “packet” or amount of energy contained in a photon

6. The “Dual Nature” of Light Wave –EMR can have very short wavelengths  very long wavelengths –Energy is inversely proportional to wavelength –Shorter wavelength = higher energy

7. Relationship between Energy and Wavelength ( )

8. Photosynthetic & Visible Light Far-red

9. How is Light (EMR) Generated? Everything with a temperature above absolute zero (-273C) is emitting EMR The amount of energy emitted depends on the temperature Increase in temperature = increase in total energy emitted Stephan-Boltzman Law

10. Temperature vs. Wavelength ( ) Temperature is inversely proportional to wavelength Wein’s Law: peak (wavelength) of EMR from an object is inversely proportional to temperature  can control color of light by controlling temperature of an object.

11. Pigments and Light Absorption Objects absorb specific wavelengths Pigments are the chemicals in an object that absorb specific wavelengths, giving that object its characteristic COLORCOLOR

12. Biological Pigments Green Yellow Orange Red Black Light Reflected Yellow Orange

13. Measuring Light Quantity Photometric Method Radiometric Method Quantum Method

14. Photometric Method Based on the sensitivity of the human eye to detect electromagnetic radiation Very subjective Standard Unit = 1 foot candle (ftc) Amount of light given off from 1 candle at a distance of 1 foot

15. Light Absorption Human Eye vs. Leaf Eyesight is not the best way to judge of the photosynthetic capability of a light source because the ability to detect colors by our eyes is the opposite of leaf absorption of colors for photosynthesis.

16. Radiometric Method Measures electromagnetic radiation in terms of total energy Standard Unit = W/m 2 Disadvantage – wavelength is irrelevant

17. Quantum Method Measure of Photosynthetic Photon Flux (PPF) (400-700nm) Not measuring all of entire spectrum, it is measuring the amount of photosynthetic light Standard Unit = mol = (6.02 x 10 23 ) photons =  mol = (6.02 x 10 17 ) photons Best way to measure light in the greenhouse because plants are “counting” photons that they absorb.

18. Light Intensity Intensity Directly Effects: 1. Photosynthesis plants are photon “counters”- photosynthetic yield is directly related to photons absorbed CO 2 + H 2 O + Light Energy  (CH 2 O) + O 2 2. Height (stem growth) 3. Development (flowering)

19. What Limits Light Availability? Time of Year (season)* Latitude Time of Day Cloud cover (reduces availability 3-6x) *Also determines length of day which influences light availability Sun angle is influenced by these factors and sun angle determines light availability

20. Angle of Light and Intensity Lambert’s cosine Law As you change the angle of incidence (  ), the intensity of a light beam will decrease as the angle of incidence decreases   The reduction carries over into the amount of light that passes through the greenhouse covering.

21. Angle of Incidence 90 o is the angle at which transmission intensity occurs As the angle of the sun hitting the greenhouse roof increases to 90 o, light transmission into the greenhouse increases. In general, the higher the sun is in the sky, the greater the transmission into the greenouse. Low sun angle in the winter along with short days dramatically reduce light levels in the greenhouse during that time of the year.

22. Time of Year

23. Cloud Cover

24. A cloudy day in May provides more photosynthetic light than a clear day in December, mostly because of the duration of the light period.

25. Plant Physiology Under Low Light Intensity 1. Longer internodes, increased stem elongation 2. Leaves have larger surface area 3. Thinner leaves and stems 4. Thinner cuticle 5. One layer of palisade cells All are adaptations to maximize photosynthesis

26. Sun vs. Shade Leaf Sun Shade

27. Guess which plants haven’t seen the light yet. Notice that both Easter lilies are flowering.

28. Light Quality Controls Photomorphogenesis (plant development and form) Mediated by phytochrome (protein pigment) –red light absorbing form (Pr) –FR light absorbing form (Pfr) –Forms are photoinconvertible, depending on the which type of light is absorbed

29. Light Quality both forms induce plant responses response depends on which form is dominant Pr Pfr RED FR

30. Hard to know that FR is present Humans cannot sense it

31. FR Red FR box has 5X more energy than R box

32. Plant Growth Response to Low R:FR ( R<FR generally < 1:1 ) Low R:FR can result from increase in FR or reduction in Red and is indicated by: 1. Elongated internodes (stretching) 2. Reduced lateral branching 3. Elongated petioles 4. Larger, thinner leaf blades 5. Smaller total leaf area (due to lower numbers of leaves 6. Reduced chlorophyll synthesis

33. Plant Growth Response to High R:FR ( R > FR (generally > 1:1) ) High R:FR can result from reduction in FR or increase in Red and is indicated by 1. Reduced internode length 2. Increased lateral branching 3. Shorter petioles 4. Thicker, smaller leaves 4. Greater total leaf area 5. Increased leaf chlorophyll (darker green)

34. R:FR is <1:1 Elongated internodes (stretching) Reduced lateral branching Elongated petioles Larger, thinner Smaller total leaf area (due to lower numbers of leaves) Reduced chlorophyll synthesis R:FR is >1:1 Reduced internode length (short stems) Increased lateral branching Shorter petioles Thicker, smaller leaves Greater total leaf area Green (increased chlorophyll) Which of the above would be the more sturdy, aesthetically pleasing (desirable) plants?

35. Can you tell which plant in each picture was grown with R>FR?

36. Shade Avoidance Response Leaves strongly absorb red and blue light The closer plants are to a neighboring plant: less red light available for absorption still have nearly all FR light present because of FR is transmitted and reflected but not absorbed

37. Shade Avoidance Response Phytochrome responds to the quality of light within the canopy of crowded plants Mechanism by which plants can tell how close neighboring plants are and out-compete for available space

38. In dense canopies the dominant form of phytochrome is Pr (meaning it has absorbed FR) Pr form elicits shade avoidance response

39. Effects of Leaves on Light Reflection, Absorption, and Transmission

40. Other Phytochrome Responses

41. End of Day Response

42. Plant response to the changes in the ratio of Red/FR light As day progresses, greater chance of scattering light in atmosphere because of lower sun angle Shorter have greater probability of scattering At end of day, lowest Red/FR ratio for the day – red light scattered much more than FR

43. End of Day (EOD) Response

44. EOD - important in timing of photoperiodic flowering

45. Photoperiodism Duration of the Light Period As a result of seasonal changes in daylength, plants have evolved systems to ensure viability of seeds: - protection before winter - coincide with the rainy/ dry seasons Photoperiodism - plant ability to detect and respond to day length

46. Photoperiodic Response Short Day Plant (SDP) - flower when the day length is less than the Critical Day Length Long Day Plant (LDP)- flower when the day length is greater than the Critical Day Length Day Neutral- flower without respect to day length

47. Photoperiodic Response

48. Photoperiodic Regulation Plants actually measuring NIGHT length That means that during short day periods of the year by interrupting or splitting a long night with a relatively short photoperiod the plant perceives a short night and long day effect even though the natural day length has not changed

49. Classes of Photoperiodic Plants Obligate - plant that must absolutely meet the day length requirement to flower Facultative - plant that will flower under most photoperiods but will flower most readily when the photoperiodic requirement is met

50. Understanding Photoperidism Allows year-round production of photoperiodic plants Prior to discovery, mums only grown for fall sales Carnations only grown for spring & early summer Same thing for other SD and LD plants now grown year-round

51. Temperature Interaction Critical Daylength is Often Temperature Dependent SDP - as temp. increases, CDL decreases (requires shorter days than normal) –Mums –Poinsettias LDP - as temp. decreases, CDL decreases (days don’t have to be as long as normal) –Fuchsia –Spinach

52. Note: the concept of short/long day is not limited to 12 hrs. day/night. The critical dark period for a short day plant may only be 8 hrs. (16 hrs.light), but if it does not flower when the night is any shorter than that, it is still a short day plant, even though it flowers when the day length is 16 hrs.

53. Light Manipulation to Control Plant Growth in the Greenhouse

54. Characteristics of Light Quantity (Intensity) –Photosynthesis Duration –Photoperiodism Quality (λ) –Photomorphogenesis

55. Maximizing Light Intensity: Depends On: Greenhouse Design Construction Materials Used Plant Spacing Other objects absorbing/reflecting light

56. Greenhouse Orientation ( direction the ridge runs) East-West More light interception More permanent shadows More snow blown off roof by wind (<40° N or S) North-South Less light interception Less permanent shadows Better natural ventilation (<40° N or S)

57. Orientation Bottom line: 40° latitude Higher latitudes… Single-ridged → East-West Multi-ridged → North-South

58. Incidence Angle of Light If light strikes roof at 90°, then have maximum light transmission If light strikes roof not at 90°, then less light transmitted  

59. Using Roof Angle to Maximize Light Interception Winter months in Columbus, OH (~40°N), sun at low angle For light to strike at 90°, then roof angle would have to be >60°

60. Greenhouse Dimensions and Roof Slope Width Peak Height @ 26° Slope Peak Height @ 63° Slope 21 ft5.1ft20.6ft 32 ft7.8ft31.4ft 49 ft11.9ft48.1ft!

61. Common Roof Angles Width < 25 ft 32° Width > 25 ft 26 °

62. Light transmission is affected by glazing materials and the maintenance of them Glazing Material (% light transmission) –Glass (low iron) (93%) –Exolite (double acrylic) (92%) –Lexan (double polycarbonate) = (78%) Cleaning glazing material –Several times a year (usually rainfall will do this) –Remove shading compound by mid-October

63. Superstructure –↑ superstructure, ↑ shading –Heavy glazing requires more superstructure –Frame 10-12%, sash bars 5-7% reductions –Supplemental lighting fixtures can shade Superstructure clean and painted –Aluminum = reflective –Wood - painted white and kept clean Light transmission is affected by superstructure and its maintenance

64. LOTS of superstructure but it is white and clean so lots of reflection too.

65. Remove objects that shade Adequate plant spacing –Reduces shade avoidance response –Don’t overdo with the numbers of hanging baskets Objects close to greenhouse (trees, buildings, etc) –Distance away = 2 x Height of object

66. Greenhouse shadows can be a serious problem, especially if they don’t move during the day

67. Reducing Light Intensity Why shade? –Low light plants don’t like high light –Reduce temperature –Have reached light saturation point Shading methods –Shade cloth –Shading compounds

68. Internal and external shade systems

69. Automated shade system

70. Shade cloth Shading compounds Advantages: Easily applied or Reduces air temps more removedeffectively Known % Disadvantages: Not as effective More or less permanent at reducing(difficult to remove) air temps Have to use specially formulated compounds for both application and removal. Application not uniform

71. Typical Light Intensities for Different Purposes Use  mol/m 2 /s Display15 Photoperiod10-12 Survival100 Maintenance200 Propagation80 Photosynthesis for Growth and Development 400-1200* * Photosynthesis is a reciprocal process. Low intensity can be overcome by longer exposure.

72. Manipulating Photoperiod Control flowering stage of your crop Vegetative vs. Reproductive –Artificial short days Black cloth –Artificial long days Daylength extension Night breaks

73. Artificial Short days Pull black cloth –Opaque material blocks all light –SDP induced to flower –Reflective to reduce heat delay –Can be automated –Can ‘double’ as thermal blanket to hold in heat on cold nights

74. Artificial Long Days Daylength extension –Induce LDP to flower –Light (FR containing) for 3-6 hrs at end of day –Low intensity (1-3  mol/m 2 /s, 7-10 fc) Night Breaks –Prevent SDP from flowering –2-4 hrs of low light during dark period –Want little FR in light

75. Manipulating R:FR Minimize shade avoidance response Remove excess vegetation from plants to prevent self-shading (e.g. geraniums) Prevent shading from other plants –Minimize # of hanging baskets over plants –Proper pot spacing Space visible between plants at least until plants are nearly ready to ship

76. Bench Cover and Pot-spacing Symbols (multi-lingual)

77. Other alternatives Spectral filters –Pigments in plastic film that absorb FR and increase R:FR –Not all problems worked out yet Biotechnology –More phytochrome so plants “see” more red light –Compact, darker green, more branching

78. Effects of FR-absorbing filters on stem elongation Darker color of filter indicates increasing FR-absorbance

79. Supplemental Lighting for Photosynthesis Law of Reciprocity –500  mol/m 2 /s for 1 hour = 100  mol/m 2 /s for 5 hours Use this law to your advantage, run relatively low intensity for several hours –Increasing intensity by adding additional fixtures can be too expensive and cause too much shading

80. Types of Supplemental Light Sources Incandescent Fluorescent High Intensity Discharge (HID) –Metal Halide –Mercury vapor –Low pressure sodium –High pressure sodium

81. Considerations for Lighting Choice Cost –Fixture –Installation –Energy consumption Ease of Installation Spectral characteristics (λ) Type of crop Power (wattage) Heat released Efficiency –Amount of electrical energy converted to light energy Life Expectancy Output Loss Weight of fixture

82. Incandescent Easily installed Low efficiency Low intensity Large amount of heat given off Spectrum contains far-red (R:FR > 1:1) OK for photoperiodic control –Daylength extension –Night break

83. Fluorescent More efficient than incandescent Low intensity Less heat generated than incandescents No far-red but some UV Good for growth chambers, coolers, and photoperiod (night break) use More complicated to install (ballast) than incandescent Different phosphors change spectrum

84. How well does fluorescent spectrum match plant needs?

85. High Intensity Discharge (HID) Metal Halide Best for photosynthetic light

86. Metal Halide Spectrum

87. Low-Pressure Sodium (LPS) HID lamps –Cheap –Most light in narrow band around 589nm –Bad for plants!!!!

88. High Pressure Sodium (HPS) Popular in US greenhouses Like LPS, peak λ at 589nm but wider spectrum Contain very little FR

89. Common HID Light Fixtures Found in Greenhouses

90. HID’s providing supplemental light for photosynthesis during low light conditions

91. Representative spectra for sunlight and artificial light sources

92. Uses for Light Sources Night break Fluorescent > Incandescent > HID Daylength Extension for Photosynthesis HID Incandescent Fluorescent Supplemental Light Intensity for Photosynthesis HID > Fluorescent* Incandescent * Best source of photosynthetic light in germination rooms and coolers