2.  Sometimes when you look out a window, you see what is outside as well as your own reflection  This is because some light reflects and some light refracts at a surface between two media that have different indices of refraction  This phenomenon is called partial reflection and refraction

3.  Both reflection and refraction occur, but not equally  The amount of each depends on the angle  In this case, more light is refracted than reflected, as shown by the thickness of the rays

4.  Example: Sun shining on water ◦ If the angle of incidence is nearly zero, (i.e., sun is directly overhead) most of the light penetrates the surface and very little is reflected (see fig. A) ◦ As the angle of incidence increases (i.e., at sunset), more light is reflected at the surface and less light penetrates the surface to be refracted (see fig. B)

5.  Rearview mirrors in most cars have a lever that allows the driver to choose how much light from behind the car will reach their eyes ◦ i.e., “Daytime” and “Nighttime” positions  The mirrors are not actually flat, but wedge- shaped and silvered on the back  Light coming from behind the car hits the mirror at a very small angle of incidence, so most of the light is refracted and reaches the silvered back of the mirror, where it is reflected to the driver’s eyes

6.  “Daytime” setting: ◦ The light that has reflected off the back of the mirror is directed to the driver’s eyes ◦ Allows a clear view of the traffic behind the car ◦ At night, this also reflects the headlights of traffic directly into the driver’s eyes

7.  “Nighttime” setting: ◦ At this angle, most of the light penetrates the mirror glass and is refracted as before ◦ However in this case, only a small amount of reflected light is directed to the driver’s eyes ◦ Most of the light penetrates the mirror, refracts, hits the silvered back of the mirror, and is reflected away from the driver’s eyes ◦ Allows the driver to see the headlights, but at a lower intensity

8.  Scuba divers can only see objects on the surface in an area directly above them (see picture on pg. 457)  The light coming from directly above the diver will penetrate the surface of the water, refract, and be visible to him/her  As the angle of incidence increases, more of the light reflects off the water, and less reaches the diver  From below the surface of the water, it looks like light is coming in through a large hole

9.  If you are standing in a clear lake, it is easy to see stones on the bottom that are near you, but impossible to see ones that are farther away  For you to see an object underwater, light must hit the object, reflect off it, and travel to your eyes  Because the incident rays are going from water to air, the refracted rays bend away from the normal  As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction increases more rapidly

10.  As the angle of incidence continues to increase, the angle of refraction will eventually reach 90°  At this angle of incidence, the refracted ray lies along the boundary between the two media  No light passes into the second medium (air in this case) The angle of incidence that produces a refracted ray at an angle of 90° from the normal is called the critical angle, ∠c

11.  When the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, the angle of refraction cannot get any larger because the refracted ray would no longer be in the second medium  So, at angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, no refraction occurs – all the light is reflected back into the first medium This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

12.  A glass prism can change the direction of light by creating the conditions for total internal reflection  The critical angle between glass and air is less than 45°, so letting light hit an inner surface at exactly 45° will be totally reflected inside the glass  When light enters ⊥ to the short side of the prism, the angle of incidence is zero  ∴ no refraction at surface  At the long side of the prism, the angle of incidence is 45°, so the angle of reflection is 45°  Total change in direction of the light is 90°

13.  When light enters the long side of the prism at any angle, the reflected light is reflected by 180°, or directly back in the direction that it came from  When the angle of incidence into the prism is not 0°, the light will be refracted  After the light has reflected off both inner short sides and then leaves the prism, it will refract at the same angle

14.  Binoculars ◦ The direction of light is reflected twice in binoculars by prisms to make the path of the light longer ◦ Need to extend the path due to the distance to the focal point of the lenses used (more on that later in this unit!)

15.  Retroreflectors ◦ Look like small plastic prisms  e.g., bicycle reflectors ◦ Changes direction of incoming light by 180° ◦ Regardless of the direction that light from headlights hits the reflectors, the light is always reflected directly back to the car

16.  Fibre Optics ◦ Fibre optics have revolutionized all forms of communication, including the internet ◦ Allows information to be sent as pulses of light instead of pulses of electricity ◦ Optical fibres are made of a glass core which is surrounded by an optical cladding ◦ The cladding is a covering made of a different kind of glass than the fibre inside

17.  When light enters the end of the fibre in a direction that is almost parallel to the fibre, it hits the boundary between the core and the cladding at an angle that is larger than the critical angle  Even when the fibre is bent, the light is totally internally reflected along the entire fibre until it reaches the other end

18.  Telecommunications: ◦ Many copper cables that used to carry information have been replaced by fibre optics ◦ Benefits include:  Signals are not affected by electrical storms  Can carry many more signals over longer distances  Are smaller and lighter than copper cables  Medicine: ◦ An endoscope uses optical fibre bundles to assist a surgeon with minimally invasive surgery (a.k.a., “keyhole surgery” with small incisions) ◦ One bundle of fibres carries light into the surgery area, and another carries a video signal back to a monitor ◦ Allows faster recovery times and easier diagnostics