1. Legal functions of Bills of Lading related to the risk of disputes 1. Evidence of Receipt of Cargo 2. Evidence of a Contract of Carriage 3. Document of Title to Cargo

2. Legal functions of Bills of Lading related to the risk of disputes 1.1 Commercial function: Evidence of Receipt of Cargo Article III, rule 3 of the Hague and Hague-Visby Rules (and, similarly, Article 15(1)(b) of the Hamburg Rules), The words “shipped on board in apparent good order and condition” remain the most common form of words used to evidence receipt on board a vessel, in good condition, of a shipper’s cargo. 1.2 The risk of dispute : Carrier: not independently confirm all information about condition and quantity of cargo Carrier: be liable for any discrepancies between the the quantity and apparent order and condition of the cargo

3. Legal functions of Bills of Lading related to the risk of disputes 2.1 Commercial function: Evidence of a Contract of Carriage Save for a “received for shipment” bill of lading, a bill of lading will not or, at least, should not, be issued until after all of the cargo covered by that bill of lading has been shipped on board the carrying vessel (see, The Wilomi Tanana [1993] 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 41 @ 45 per Hobhouse J.) 2.2 Risks of disputes: contract based on Bill of Lading like liner contract -> not fair

4. Legal functions of Bills of Lading related to the risk of disputes 3.1. Commercial function: Document of Title to Cargo 3.2. Risk of disputes: bills of lading have come to be treated also as documents of title to the cargo covered, the use of sets of original bills of lading now provides substantial scope for fraudulent dealings; e.g. The Lycaon [1983] 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 548.