1. PHYSICS UNIT 2

2. Distance-Time Graphs The line is straight - this means that the object is moving at a constant speed (40 seconds to go every 1000m) If the car had gone faster then the line would have been steeper. In other words the gradient would have been greater (would have gone further than a 1000m every 40 seconds) The gradient of a line on a Distance-Time graph represents speed

3. Y and Z went at a constant speed because the lines are straight X went the fastest because its gradient is greatest Part of Z’s line is straight – this means the object is stationary (the car stopped)

4. Calculating Speed SPEED = Distance / Time Distance in metres Time in seconds Speed is m/s (metres per second) Distance – 1000m Time – 40 seconds Speed = 1000/40 = 25m/s

5. Calculating Speed Speed of Y = 30,000 / 1250 = 24m/s For Z you can only work out the average speed Speed of Z = 20,000 / 1500 = 13.33 m/s

6. What is Velocity? An object moving at a constant speed in a straight line has a constant velocity An object moving in a circle at a constant speed does not have a constant velocity Velocity is speed in a given direction Cars travelling at the same speed in different directions have different velocities

7. What is Acceleration? Acceleration is change of velocity per second Unit is metres per second squared

8. Velocity-Time Graphs The greater the gradient – the greater the acceleration

9. Calculating change in velocity Change of velocity = Final velocity (v) – initial velocity (u) Change of velocity = v - u

10. Calculating Velocity Acceleration (A) = Change in velocity Time taken for the change (T) Acceleration (a) = v-u t

11. The area under the line on a velocity-time graph represents distance travelled

12. What is a force? A force can change the shape of an object. It can change its state of rest. It can change its motion The unit is Newton (N)

13. Resultant Force We can work out the effect of the forces acting on an object by replacing them with a single force, the resultant force This is a single force that has the same effect as all the forces acting on an object

14. Zero Resultant Force If an object remains stationary then the resultant force is zero If the object continues to move at the same velocity then the resultant force is zero In this case: If only two forces act on an object, they must be equal to each other and act in opposite directions

15. Calculating Resultant Force Resultant force is their difference if the forces act in opposite directions Resultant force is the sum of the two forces if they act in the same direction

16. Calculating Resultant Force Resultant Force (F) = Mass (M) x Acceleration (A) Resultant Force in Newtons Mass in Kilograms Acceleration in metres/second squared The greater the mass of an object, the smaller its acceleration is for a given force

17. Breaking Force Breaking force to stop a vehicle = Mass * Acceleration Acceleration when the breaks are first applied

18. Stopping Distances Shortest distance a vehicle can safely stop Stopping distance = Thinking Distance + Braking distance

19. What increases thinking distance? Poor reaction time (Tired / Alcohol / Drugs) High speed

20. What increases braking distance? High speed Poor weather conditions Poor maintenance

21. We can solve this using speed cameras Fall in speed by 17% 55% reduction in deaths and serious injury

22. How to prevent skidding when breaking Anti skid surfaces Rougher This increases friction Reduces skidding when breaking hard Used at junctions

23. What is Weight? Weight of an object is the force of gravity on it Mass of an object is the quantity of matter in it

24. Calculating Weight Weight = Mass * Gravitational Field Strength Weight in Newtons (N) Mass in Kg Gravitational Field Strength in N/Kg

25. Where will you weigh less? The gravitational field strength is weaker at the equator If you want to reduce your weight, go to the equator

26. Releasing an object When you release an object it falls because of its weight Weight is the resultant force

27. Releasing an object into liquid Drag force acts in the opposite direction to the weight of the object Resultant Force = Weight – Drag Force As it falls the acceleration will decrease It will reach a constant velocity when the Drag Force = Weight. The resultant force will be zero This velocity is its TERMINAL VELOCITY

28. What is an Elastic Object? It is an object that regains its original shape For example rubber

29. Extension Increase in length of an elastic object is known as extension Extension = New length – Original length

30. Hooke’s Law Extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force applied As long as the limit of proportionality is not exceeded It obeys Hooke’s law

31. Energy and Work Work is done on an object when a force makes the object move Energy transferred = work done Work done (joules) = force (newtons) x distance moved in the direction of the force (metres)

32. Gravitational Potential Energy This increases when the object goes up and decreases when it goes down Change of gravitational potential energy = mass * gravitational field strength* change in height

33. Kinetic Energy and Momentum Kinetic energy (J) = ½ * Mass (Kg)* Speed (m/s)² Momentum (Kg m/s) = Mass * Velocity In a closed system, the total momentum before an event is equal to the total momentum after an event

34. Inside an atom In the nucleus there are protons and neutrons Electrons move around the nucleus

35. PROTONS – Positive charge ELECTRONS – Negative charge NEUTRONS – Uncharged Equal number of electrons and protons means that the object is UNCHARGED Objects become charged if electrons or added or lost STATIC ELECTRICITY

36. Adding electrons makes it negative – more electrons than protons Removing electrons makes it positive – more protons than electrons

37. Electric Current This is a flow of electrons around a circuit (flow of charge) Move from negative end of battery (repelled from it) to positive end of battery They transfer energy from the battery to the bulb Battery is two or more cells connected together In a circuit every component has an agreed symbol A circuit diagram shows how they are linked together

39. Calculating Electric Current Electric current is the flow of charge (flow of electrons) per second More electrons = More current Current = Charge flow / Time I = Q/T I is current in amperes (A) Q is charge in coulombs (c) T is time in seconds (s)

40. Ammeter Ammeter measures current In this case it measures the current going through the bulb (flow of electrons which carry the energy)

41. Voltmeter Voltmeter measures the potential difference across the torch bulb This is the amount of energy transferred to the bulb by each coulomb of charge It is called voltage The unit is volts (V)

42. Calculating Voltage Voltage = Work done /charge V = W/Q V is Voltage in volts (V) W is work done in Joules (J) Q is charge in Coulombs (C)

43. What is Resistance? Electrical components RESIST the passage of electrons Resistance = Voltage /Current R = V/I R is Resistance in Ohms V is Voltage in Volts I is current in amperes

44. OHMS Law The current through a resistor at constant temperature is directly proportional to the potential difference across the resistor Double the voltage – double the current This means that the resistance is constant Changing the current does not change the resistance If you change the temperature – you change the resistance For example the resistance of a metal filament in a bulb increases because the temperature causes the electrons to move faster and thus they collide more frequently

45. Series:Parallel: CurrentSame current passes through components in series with each other Current splits. Thus total current is sum of the currents Potential Difference This is shared between the components. Thus you add the potential differences to get the total potential difference This is the same for each component in parallel CellsAdd the potential difference from each of the cells together to get the total potential difference ResistanceAdd resistances to get total resistanceThe bigger the resistance the smaller the current

46. The battery in a torch makes the current go round the circuit in one direction only. This is called DIRECT CURRENT (dc) At home you use ALTERNATING CURRENT (ac) which means the current repeatedly reverses direction. It flows one way and then the opposite way. Its FREQUENCY is the number of cycles it passes through each second An OSCILLOSCOPE measures this Frequency = 1 / Time taken for one cycle Frequency = 1/0.02 = 50Hz The frequency of the a.c. mains electricity in the UK is 50Hz

47. Cables Every mains circuit has a LIVE wire and a NEUTRAL wire The live wire alternates between + and – volts The neutral wire is always at 0V

48. Safety Live wire touches the metal case Big current will flow from the live into the metal case This will give you an electric shock The metal case is attached to the Earth wire The earth wire takes the current away and blows the fuse. The fuse in the plug must be in series with the appliance. The fuse melts. Alternatively there is a circuit breaker which pulls a switch open (RCCB) This works by detecting the difference between the current in the live and neutral wire

49. Plugs Remember the colours Cable grip and case and made of plastic because they are good insulators Wall sockets are connected in parallel

50. 1.POWER = Energy transferred / Time – UNIT IS WATTS (W) 2. POWER SUPPLIED = Current * Potential Difference – UNIT IS VOLTS (V) 3. CORRECT RATING FOR A FUSE = Electrical power / Potential Difference 4. CHARGE = Current * Time – UNIT IS COULOMBS (C) 5. ENERGY TRANSFERRED = Potential difference * Charge – UNIT IS JOULES

51. Atoms have a nucleus that are unstable. They become stable by emitting particles

52. Radioactivity Radioactivity is a random process

53. Alpha2 protons and 2 neutrons stuck together Positively charged BetaFast moving electronNegatively charged GammaElectromagnetic radiation Uncharged

54. Nuclear Reactions Atomic number: Number of protons in a nucleus Mass number: Number of protons and neutrons Number of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number Alpha emission reduces the atomic number by 2 and the mass number by 4 Beta emission adds 1 to the atomic number and does not change the mass number

55. Background radiation Radon gas Rocks and buildings Cosmic rays Food and drink X-rays The LNT model states that risk of cancer increases as the radiation dose increases The Radiation hormesis model states that at low radiation levels the risk of cancer drops

56. Half life is the time it takes for the number of nuclei of an isotope (mass of atoms to half)

57. What are the uses of radioactivity? 1.Measure thickness 2.Trace the flow of a substance through a system 3.Find the age of an ancient material

58. The discovery of the nucleus Scientists used to use the ‘plum pudding’ model to explain the structure of the atom The pudding was a mass of + charge with electrons dotted around This can be disproved by firing alpha particles at a thin gold sheet Most of the alpha particles go straight through – showing that most of the atom is empty space Some alpha particles are deflected – showing that the nucleus has a large positive charge Only a small number of alpha particles rebound backwards – showing that the nucleus of the atom is very small

59. Nucleus releases 2 or 3 neutrons and energy (radiation) This causes other nuclei to split – CHAIN REACTION This happens in a nuclear reactor The energy is used to generate electricity Uses Urannium-235 or Plutonium-239 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EsuRgxsd6bk Nuclear Fission

60. 1.Small nuclei are fused into large nuclei (for example hydrogen) 2.This releases energy 3.It happens in stars and the sun 4.Could do this with water – lots of hydrogen atoms 5.The nuclei need to move fast or they will repel Nuclear Fusion

61. 1.13 billion years ago- THE BIG BANG 2.A hot glowing ball of radiation and matter were created 3.The university expanded and the temperature fell – it became cold and dark – THE DARK AGES 4.Uncharged matter was attracted to one another and formed gigantic clumps 5.This became galaxies and stars The Birth of the Universe

62. 1.Gravity pulls dust and gas together. This forms a PROTOSTAR 2.As it gets denser –it gets hotter 3.Nuclear fusion changes hydrogen to helium. This is the MAIN SEQUENCE. The star is stable because the force of gravity is balanced by the outward force of radiation. The bigger the mass, the shorter the main sequence because the hydrogen is used up more quickly 4.Star runs out of hydrogen 5.Those the same size of the sun swell out, cool down and turn red. This is called a RED GIANT 6.Gravity then causes it to collapse in on itself. It heats up and turns white. This is called a WHITE DWARF 7.It then goes cold and becomes a BLACK DWARF 5.Those bigger than the sun swell out and become a RED SUPERGIANT 6.It starts to collapse but then explodes in a massive explosion called a SUPERNOVA 7.Most then become NEUTRON STARS. Very heavy stars create a BLACK HOLE The Life Cycle of a Star