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LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
1 A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT Introduction John W. Santrock
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Introduction The Life-Span Perspective The Nature of Development
Theories of Development Research in Life-Span Development
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The Life-Span Perspective
Development — pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through life span
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The Importance of Studying Life-Span Development
The Life-Span Perspective The Importance of Studying Life-Span Development Personal insight Explore growth and decline Experiences influence development
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Views of Child Development
The Life-Span Perspective Views of Child Development Original sin view Tabla rasa view Innate goodness view Children are born into a world corrupted with inclination toward evil Children born as “blank slates” and acquire characteristics through experience (Locke) Children born inherently good (Rousseau)
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The Life-Span Perspective
Adult Development Life expectancy — average number of years a person is expected to live when born in a particular year Developmental change occurs during adulthood as well as childhood
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The Life-Span Perspective
The Aging of America Fig. 1.2
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The Life-Span Perspective
Family Policy Social policy — laws, regulations, and government programs that influence citizens’ welfare U.S. family policies overwhelmingly treatment oriented
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Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective
Lifelong Multidimensional Multidirectional Plastic Contextual Multidisciplinary Individualistic Growth Maintenance Regulation
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Development is Contextual
The Life-Span Perspective Development is Contextual Normative age- graded influences Normative history-graded influences Non-normative life events Biological and environmental influences are similar for individuals in a particular age group Biological and environmental influences are associated with history Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on a specific person’s life
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Processes in Development
The Nature of Development Processes in Development Fig. 1.4
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The Nature of Development
Percentage of Poor and Middle-Income Children Exposed to Each of Six Stressors Fig. 1.3
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Periods of Development
The Nature of Development Periods of Development Prenatal Period Infancy Early childhood Middle and late childhood Adolescence Early adulthood Middle adulthood Late adulthood
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Periods of Development
The Nature of Development Periods of Development Each period of the life span has its own stresses, ups and downs, and concerns. Older adults have different views than children or adolescents. How does satisfaction in life relate to age?
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The Nature of Development
Age and Happiness Fig. 1.6
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The Nature of Development
Conceptions of Age Chronological age — number of years elapsed since person’s birth Biological age — age in terms of biological health Psychological age — individual’s adaptive capacities Social age — social roles and expectations related to person’s age
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Continuity-Discontinuity
The Nature of Development Developmental Issues Nature and Nurture Stability and Change Continuity-Discontinuity Extent to which development is influenced by nature and by nurture Degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change Extent development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity)
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Continuity and Discontinuity in Development
The Nature of Development Continuity and Discontinuity in Development Fig. 1.8
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Theories of Development
Theory — interrelated set of ideas that helps to explain data, make predictions Hypotheses — assertions or predictions, often derived from theories that can be tested
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Theories of Development
Scientific method: Conceptualize a problem to be studied Collect research information/data Analyze data Draw conclusions
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Psychoanalytic Theories
Theories of Development Psychoanalytic Theories Development depends primarily on the unconscious mind Heavily couched in emotion Behavior is a surface characteristic Important to analyze symbolic meanings of behavior Early experiences important in development
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Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Theories of Development Freud’s Psychosexual Theory Id, ego, and superego create personality Repression Anxiety and defense mechanisms Five stages of psychosexual development
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Theories of Development
Freudian Stages Fig. 1.9
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Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Theories of Development Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Eight stages of development Unique development task confronts individuals with crisis that must be resolved Positive resolution builds foundation for healthy development
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Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Theories of Development Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Fig. 1.10
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Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Theories
Theories of Development Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Theories Contributions include Emphasis on early experiences, family relationships, and the unconscious mind Criticisms include Difficulty in testing, negativity, cultural and gender bias, sexual underpinnings
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Cognitive Theories Children actively construct understanding
Theories of Development Cognitive Theories Children actively construct understanding Piaget’s cognitive development theory Four stages of development — age-related Based on logical thinking and skills Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory Children actively construct their knowledge Emphasizes culture and social interactions
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Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development
Theories of Development Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development Fig. 1.11
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Information-Processing Approach
Theories of Development Information-Processing Approach Brain is compared to computer’s hardware Cognition is viewed as computer software Individuals acquire increasingly complex information Thinking: perceive, encode, represent, store, and retrieve information
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Information-Processing Theory
Theories of Development Information-Processing Theory OUTPUT INPUT math history religion culture science literature
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Evaluating Cognitive Theories
Theories of Development Evaluating Cognitive Theories Contributions include Active construction of understanding, importance of developmental changes, detailed descriptions Criticisms include Lack of individual variation, information processing approach lacks clarity, and emphasis on unconscious processes
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Behavioral Theories Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Theories of Development Behavioral Theories Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Neutral stimulus paired with active stimulus to produce response Watson’s Conditioning of ‘little Albert’ Involuntary responses are learned Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Consequences, rewards and punishment, shape behavior
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Social Cognitive Theories
Theories of Development Social Cognitive Theories Bandura Emphasizes observational learning Focus on reciprocal interactions among behavior, cognition, and environment (any one can influence the others)
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Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model
Theories of Development Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model Fig. 1.12
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Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
Theories of Development Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories Contributions include Emphasis on scientific research, person and cognitive factors, environmental determinants, and observational learning Criticisms include Lack of focus on cognition, too little attention to developmental changes, and overemphasis on environmental determinants
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Ethological Theory Behavior is Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
Theories of Development Ethological Theory Behavior is Strongly influenced by biology Tied to evolution Characterized by critical or sensitive periods Emphasized in environmental contexts Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
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Evaluating Ethological Theory
Theories of Development Evaluating Ethological Theory Contributions include Emphasis on biology and evolution, sensitive periods of development, and careful observations Criticisms include Emphasis on biological foundations, inadequate attention to cognition, emphasis on animal behavior
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Theories of Development
Ecological Theory Bronfenbrenner’s view that development influenced by five environmental systems Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem
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Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
Theories of Development Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory Fig. 1.13
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Sociocultural Contexts
Theories of Development Sociocultural Contexts Key dimensions include Cross-cultural studies — comparisons of one culture with one or more other cultures Ethnicity — range of characteristics rooted in cultural heritage Gender — psychological and sociocultural dimension of being female or male
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Evaluating Ecological Theory
Theories of Development Evaluating Ecological Theory Contributions include Emphasis on macro and micro dimensions and socio-historical influences Criticisms include Lacks emphasis on biological foundations and inadequate attention to cognitive processes
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Theories of Development
Family Contexts Children in non-poor environments were more likely than those in poor homes to Get responses to their speech Have toys or interesting activities Have more books of their own See their father daily
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Theories of Development
Parents’ explanations of science to sons and daughters at a science museum Fig. 1.16
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Methods for Collecting Data
Research in Life-Span Development Methods for Collecting Data Standardized tests Advantages and disadvantages Cross-cultural concerns Physiological measures MRIs and blood tests Case study Life-history record
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Research Designs Descriptive research Correlational research
Research in Life-Span Development Research Designs Descriptive research Correlational research Correlation coefficient and range Correlation does not equal causation Experimental research Independent and dependent variables Experimental and control groups
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Possible Explanations for Correlational Data
Research in Life-Span Development Possible Explanations for Correlational Data Fig. 1.17
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Research in Life-Span Development
Time Span of Research Cross-Sectional Approach — individuals of different ages are compared at one time Longitudinal Approach — same individuals studied over period of time Sequential Approach — combined cross-sectional, longitudinal design Cohorts and their effects
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Principles of Experimental Research
Research in Life-Span Development Principles of Experimental Research Fig. 1.18
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Research Ethics Informed consent Confidentiality Debriefing Deception
Research in Life-Span Development Research Ethics Informed consent Confidentiality Debriefing Deception Cultural and ethnic bias ‘Ethnic gloss’ and over-generalizing
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1 The End
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