1. Impact of Maternal Employment on Children Rachel Dunifon Cornell University

2. Goal of Talk Present research on how and why maternal employment impacts children Discuss implications for communities and public policy Goal is not to ask whether maternal employment is good or bad for kids, but to identify areas for policies and programs

3. Why Focus on Mothers? 41% of children born outside of marriage Mothers spend more time on child care and housework than dads – Even in dual-career households (Bianchi, Milkie, Sayer & Robinson, 2000) Husbands do not pick up the slack at home when their wives work (Cawley and Liu, 2012)

4. Maternal Employment Maternal employment has risen sharply in recent decades – Today 70% of all mothers are in the labor force (http://www.bls.gov/news.release/famee.nr0.htm)

5. Trends in Maternal Employment http://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/cps/women-in-the-labor-force-a-databook-2014.pdf

6. Why has maternal employment increased? Necessity – Single motherhood – Welfare reform – Economic climate – 40% of households with children have mothers who are either the sole or primary breadwinner (Pew Research Center, 2013) Choice – Psychological and social benefits of working

7. Maternal Employment Conditions Work hours 70% of employed mothers work 35 hours per week or more Irregular hours Rotating, lack of control Long commutes

8. Maternal Employment Conditions Job churn Median length on job in study of single mothers was 7 months Nonstandard work 12% of mothers work nonstandard schedules More likely among less educated

9. Maternal Employment Hours Nonstandard Commute Stability Time Quantity Quality Money Child Well-Being

10. Evidence on Money Strong evidence that poverty is harmful for children – Linked particularly to cognitive outcomes (Brooks-Gunn and Duncan, 1997) – Early, persistent and deep poverty most harmful (Brooks-Gunn and Duncan, 1997) If maternal employment reduces poverty, children can benefit

11. Evidence on Time Use Quantity of mothers’ of time – Directly related to work hours – Employed mothers spend less time with children, but not much Employed moms protect time with children (at the cost of housework, sleep, leisure)

12. Quality of Mothers’ Time Maternal employment could be linked to parental stress, direction unclear – Depends on work conditions – 40% of working moms “always” feel rushed and 56% find it difficult to balance work and family (Pew Research Center, 2012) – Work can be rewarding, enhancing Parental stress is associated with parent-child interactions (McLoyd et al., 1994; Conger et al., 1994)

13. Quality of Children’s Time High quality child care can benefit children (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 1997; Coley, Li-Grining, and Chase- Lansdale, 2006) Lower quality care, or lack of care, can be harmful The impact of maternal employment on children may depend on where children spend time while mothers are working – Related to availability, quality of care

14. The Policy Context U.S. is unique in providing very little support to working families (Waldfogel and McLanahan, 2011) – The only advanced country without paid parental leave – No universal access to preschool

15. Maternity Leave (http://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2013/02/17/opinion/17coontz2-map.html)

16. Maternal Employment and Children Maternal employment benefits less advantaged children’s school performance and behavior problems – Especially when income supports available (Gennetian and Mill, 2002) – When the job is stable and interesting (Johnson, Kalil, and Dunifon, 2012)

17. Maternal Employment and Children Maternal employment linked to increases in child weight – Not clear why Eating behaviors, physical activity, TV time Sleep may be key factor

18. Maternal Employment and Children Maternal employment in the very earliest years or months linked to worse cognitive and behavioral outcomes (Brooks-Gunn, Han and Waldfogel, 2002; Ruhm, 2008) – These links strongest for more advantaged mothers (Ruhm, 2008) – Effect sizes not huge

19. Maternal Employment and Children Work intensity matters – Part-time work may be beneficial 30% of moms work part-time, but 62% would like to (Pew Research Center, 2012)

20. Maternal Employment and Children Work conditions matter – Night shift work, commute times, irregular work predict worse child outcomes

21. Policy Solutions Child care Paid sick leave – San Francisco, New York City, many other cities – Reduces job churn especially among mothers (Hill, 2014) Paid parental leave – Allows investment in children in earliest years – Avoids tradeoff between time and money

22. Parental Leave The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (12 weeks of unpaid leave) – Only 20% of new mothers eligible In 2004 California became the first state to implement paid family leave (6 weeks) – Rhode Island 2014, New Jersey 2009 New law—federal employees have 6 weeks of paid parental leave

23. Parental Leave Obama State of the Union Proposal: – 6 weeks paid leave – Currently only 11% of U.S. workers have access to paid family leave – Access is particularly low among minority and less skilled workers

24. Economic Benefits of Parental Leave California’s paid family leave doubled the use of maternity leave, increased the likelihood of returning to work, increased work hours, and increased income (Rossin-Slater, Ruhm and Waldfogel, 2015) In New Jersey, women who took the leave less likely to receive public assistance in the year after birth In California, 87% of companies say the policy has not increased costs (http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/01/upshot)

25. Other Benefits of Parental Leave Parental leave associated with increases in breastfeeding, reduced child mortality, and improved short- and long-term child outcomes (https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/leave_report_final.pdf)

26. Conclusion The vast majority of mothers work and will continue to do so Working has many benefits, but also can conflict with family life Particular concerns – Child health – Those working nonstandard jobs, service jobs, or with long commutes – Maternal employment in the earliest years

27. Conclusion Policies such as parental leave benefit families The U.S. lags behind other countries in family policy Suggests a need for community and policy supports for working families

28. Thank you!