1. Psychological Development
Chapter 5
Psychological Development

2. Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology – The study of how organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences
Development is a process of growth and change brought about by an interaction of heredity and the environment

3. The Nature-Nurture Interaction
Nature-nurture issue – Long-standing discussion over relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes
Twin studies – Developmental investigations in which twins, especially identical twins, are compared in the search for genetic and environmental effects
When separated at birth they often display similarities in habit, lifestyle, intelligence, and personality
Jim Twins

4. The Nature-Nurture Interaction
Identical twins– A pair who started life as a single fertilized egg, monozygotic, which later split into two distinct individuals
Fraternal twins– A pair who started life as two separate fertilized eggs that happened to share the same womb
Adoption studies – Studies in which the adopted child’s characteristics are compared to those of the biological family and the adoptive family

5. Gradual versus Abrupt Change
Developmental stages – Periods of life initiated by significant transitions or changes in physical or psychological functioning
Continuity – Gradual
Discontinuity - Stage-like
Age
Performance
Discontinuity view
Continuity view

6. Periods of Pregnancy
Germinal period - first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining
Embryonic period - the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop.
Fetal period- time from about 8 weeks after conception until birth (development of fetus)

7. Periods of Pregnancy

8. Periods of Pregnancy
Placenta –An organ that develops between the embryo/fetus and the mother
Critical periods - times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant.
Teratogen - any factor that can cause a birth defect.
Fetal alcohol syndrome- leading cause of mental retardation
Smoking
X-rays
Lead
Disease

9. Psychological Traits in Your Genes
While psychological traits are formed by interaction of heredity and the environment, many traits have a strong genetic influence
Newborns have innate abilities for finding nourishment, interacting with others, and avoiding harmful situations; the developing abilities of infants and children rely on learning

10. Neonatal Period (from birth to one month)
Sensory abilities- all senses are functioning, vision is limited for first 4-6 weeks
Infants use these abilities to learn
Motor abilities
Rooting reflex- food source
Sucking reflex
Grasping reflex
Stepping Reflex
Babinski Reflex- rub bottom of foot the toes fan out and curl back in
Moro reflex (startle reflex)- pulling arms and legs into the body then extending them out

11. Maturation
Maturation refers to development that largely unfolds on it’s own. All humans (especially infants) develop in the same orderly way. (we stand before we walk, babble before we talk, use nouns before adjectives…)
The time can vary depending on the person
Maturation sets the course of development, experience adjusts it.

12. Motor Development
The sequence of motor development is nearly the same in all parts of the world.
90% of all babies will begin walking by 15 months.
Roll over, sit up unsupported, crawl, walk etc.
Identical twins typically begin sitting up and walking on nearly the same day.
EX.- t-ball; hitting and throwing pretty equal among players

13. Toilet Training
NO MATTER WHAT, THE BABY NEEDS THE PHYSICAL MATURATION TO HOLD HIS OR HER BLADDER OR BOWEL MOVEMENTS BEFORE TOILET TRAINING.
NO TRAINING WILL WORK IF THE CHILD IS NOT PHYSICALLY READY.

14. Cognitive Development
Cognitive development – the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory scheme (plural schemas)
This field is Dominated by a man named Jean Piaget.
He was developing IQ tests and noticed that many children got the same answers wrong.
Thought to himself, “maybe these kids are not stupid, but instead think differently than adults.”

15. Piaget’s Important Concepts
Children are active thinkers, always trying to make sense of the world.
To make sense of the world, they develop schemas.
Schema- a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information formed through experiences with objects and events

16. Piaget’s Important Concepts
Assimilation – Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existing schema
Ex. Child sees a cougar for the first time and points and says “doggie” because they have a dog at home
Accommodation – Mental process that restructures existing schemas so that new information is better understood
Ex. Child now knows that cougars are bigger and have different features- accommodating their original schema (four legs, furry, inside a house, etc.)

17. Piaget’s Stage Theory of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage – first stage in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment.
Birth to 2 years
At 4 to 8 months of age, the child will learn that she can make things move by banging them and shaking them
Object Permanence - the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight.

18. Piaget’s Stage Theory
Preoperational stage – second stage in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world; begin to pretend play (Approx. ages 2 to 6 or 7)
Think Symbolically- one thing can represent something else
Egocentrism - the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes.
Centration - in Piaget’s theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features.
Irreversibility - in Piaget’s theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action.

19. Piaget’s Stage Theory
Concrete Operational stage - third stage of cognitive development in which the school-age child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking. (about 7 to 11 years old)
marked by logical thinking, mental representations, mathematical transformations, and mastery of conservation
Conservation - in Piaget’s theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature.

21. Piaget’s Stage Theory
Formal Operational Stage - Piaget’s last stage of cognitive development in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking. (11 and beyond)
Abstract thinking, moral reasoning and hypothetical situations
Consider future possibilities and imaginary scenarios
God is love. Love is Blind. Stevie Wonder is Blind. Stevie Wonder is god.

22. Lev Vygotsky’s Theory
Impact of the social context on a child’s cognitive growth
Scaffolding - process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - The difference between what a child can do with help and what the child can do without any help or guidance
Reach the top of this range when given instruction

23. Social and Emotional Development
Socialization –The lifelong process of shaping an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society
(Commonly referred to as manners, beliefs or customs)
Temperament - the behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth.
Easy - regular, adaptable, and happy
Difficult - irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable
Slow to warm up - need to adjust gradually to change.

24. Attachment
Attachment - the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver. Measured with Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation. Humans have an inborn need for attachment
Secure - willing to explore, upset when mother departs but easily soothed upon her return.
Avoidant – unattached; explore without “touching base”, can attach to stranger
Ambivalent/Resistant - insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return.
Disorganized-disoriented – insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected; seemed fearful, dazed, and depressed.
Strange Situation

25. Deprivation of Attachment
John Bowlby’s types of Anxiety
Separation Anxiety- distress at being separated from parents or caregiver
Stranger Anxiety- distress upon encountering new, unfamiliar people
Early attachments form the basis for our adult relationships
Critical periods exist for attachment and bonding just like language development. If those critical periods pass without adequate attachment, it can rewire a child’s brain with lifelong consequences.

26. Harry Harlow’s Contact Comfort
Contact Comfort- human newborns need physical touch and nurturance
Video

27. Social and Emotional Development
Imprinting- rigid attachment process during an organisms critical period, usually immediately after birth, as if it is their mother
Konrad Lorenz- baby ducklings
Transitional Object- blanket

28. Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Styles
Parenting styles-Most approaches to child rearing fall into one of the following four styles:
Authoritarian parents-establish rules and expectations; expect obedience; punishment
Authoritative parents- establish rules but also listen to input from children; reinforcement and punishment
Correlate with positive outcomes for children
Permissive parents- parents submit to their children; children given freedom
Neglectful or Uninvolved parents

29. The Transitions of Adolescence
Adolescence – Developmental period beginning at puberty and ending at adulthood
the period of life from about age 13 to the early twenties, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult.
Puberty - the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak.
Period of about four years when we become sexually mature
Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics
Rites of passage – Social rituals that mark the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood

30. Cognitive Development in Adolescence
Formal operational stage – Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth (abstract and complex thought)
Hormones rise to high levels
This leads to sensation seeking and risk taking, and preoccupation with body image and sex
The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel”
Emerging Adulthood- transitional period between adolescence and adulthood
18 traditionally meant you were an adult; college has changed this and delayed responsibilities

31. Social Identity in Adolescence
Identity crisis- sense of self changes and is shaped by the question “who am I ?” which is often answered by the group memberships we hold.
The increasing influence of peers- diminishing parent influence
We talk, dress, and act more like our peers than our parents.

32. Egocentric Thinking (David Elkind)
Personal fable - type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm.
Imaginary audience - type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent’s thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are.

33. Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Development
Moral development —growth in the ability to tell right from wrong, control impulses, and act ethically.
Preconventional level— 4-10 (preoperational stage of cognitive development) Do the right thing
stage 1—avoid punishment, obey authority
stage 2—further self-interests, gain reward
Conventional level— (concrete operational stage of cognitive development or formal operational stage for most people) Social Conventions
stage 3—conform, live up to expectations of others
stage 4—maintain law and order, do your duty
Postconventional level— over 13 (reached by only some people in the formal operational stage) Internal Judgments
stage 5—social contract, to promote the society's welfare
stage 6—to promote justice

34. Developing Morality- Lawrence Kohlberg
“The Heinz Dilemma”- would you steal a drug in order to save a life?

35. Debating Kohlberg’s Moral Development
Criticized by Carol Gilligan
Felt he missed the fact that males and females view moral dilemmas differently
Men- more absolute and justice-based
Women- more relationship-based and caring

36. Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
(Years)
Stage
Psychosocial Crisis
Environmental Influence
0-1 1/2
Infancy
Trust vs. Mistrust
Maternal
2-3
Early childhood
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Both parents or adult substitutes
3-6
Preschool
Initiative vs. Guilt
Parents, family and friends
6-12
Middle Childhood
Industry vs. Inferiority
School
12-20
Adolescence
Identity vs. Role confusion
Peers
20-40
Young adulthood
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Spouse, lover, friends
40-60
Middle age
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Family, society
Over 60
Old age
Integrity vs. Despair
All humans

37. Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Age/Period
Principal Challenge
0 to 1 1/2 years
Trust vs. mistrust
1 1/2 to 3 years
Autonomy vs. self doubt
3 to 6 years
Initiative vs. guilt
6 years to puberty
Industry vs. inferiority
Adolescence
Identity vs. role confusion
Early adulthood
Intimacy vs. isolation
Middle adulthood
Generativity vs. stagnation
Late adulthood
Integrity vs. despair 33