1. Diversity in the City: Ethnic & Socio-economic Segregation in Schools in Amsterdam: Erasmus Intensive Program – Sofia – 2012 - Femke Roosma

2. Outline Amsterdam: a divers but segregated city Dutch historical and institutional context Definitions: ethnic & socio-economic segregation Segregation in Amsterdam schools: facts & figures The role of free school choice in segregation Why is segregation a problem? Social policies for desegregation Discussion Questions

3. Amsterdam: a Diverse City Capital of the Netherlands, 770.000 inhabitants, 177 nationalities 50 % natives, 15 % western-non-natives, 35 % non-western-non-natives. Migrants from: (Former) Colonies as Suriname, Netherlands Antilles, Indonesia, Labour migrants from Morocco, Turkey Refugees from Africa, former Yugoslavia, Middle East

4. Amsterdam: a segregated City Living together? Or living apart? migrants homosexuals

5. Amsterdam: segregated schools

6. Dutch Historical / Institutional Context 1848: Free School Choice People were allowed to found their own schools 1848 – 1917: “Schoolstrijd” But schools were not equally funded: -public schools were funded -private schools with a (Christian) denomination were not funded 1917: Pacification Christian parties and liberal (and socialist) parties made a package deal: -equal funding of public private schools -universal suffrage (equal voting rights) 1917 – now: Free school choice is a seen as fundamental right

7. Dutch Historical / Institutional Context Educational System Full-time education compulsory: 5-16 years Primary School: 4-12 years Secondary School: 12-16/18 years School system: relatively stratified, early selection Schools of different denomination Diversity in Schools Now: about 15% of students in primary & secondary education has a non-Western background. But, due to residential segregation and free school choice ethnic minorities are not distributed equally between Dutch schools...

8. Definition: Ethnic and socio-economic segregation Ethnic segregation: ‘black’ schools: > 80% are non-native (non-Western) students ‘white’ schools: > 80% are native students Concentration Schools Relatively segregated: too black schools: % non-native students is >23% higher than the neighbourhood too white schools: % native students is >23% higher than the neighbourhood Socio-economic segregation: ‘ advantaged’ students ‘disadvantaged’ students defined by educational level of the parents or socio-economic status (income/education)

9. Segregation in Amsterdam: facts & figures The Netherlands: About 10% of all schools in the Netherlands are defined as ‘black schools’. In the four largest cities the number of ‘black schools’ (80% non-native) is about 40% Amsterdam: Primary schools 2009/2010: % and [abs] Total 203 schools Ethnic SegregationBlackMixedWhite 33%6751%10416%32 Relative SegregationToo blackMixedToo white 12%2482%1676%12 Too advantagedMixedToo disadvantaged 10%2187%1753%7

10. Segregation in Amsterdam – black / white schools 1st & 2 nd school black 1st or 2 nd school black 1st & 2 nd school mixed 1st or 2 nd school white 1st & 2 nd school white Distribution of students in ‘black’ / ‘white’ primary and secondary schools

11. Segregation in Amsterdam: too black / too white < 25% 25-50% 50-75% > 75% Number of non-natives in neighbourhood Too black Too white Mixed Primary schools Too ‘black’ and too ‘white’ primary schools

12. Segregation in Amsterdam : socio-economic segregation? Much less than average Less than average More than average Much more than average Excluded from analysis Children living in a household with an income below the social minimum in relation to city’s average Poverty Monitor Amsterdam (2010)

13. The Role of Free School Choice Percentage of students that go to a primary school that is further away and more ‘white’ than the three nearest primary schools Natives Non-natives Mostly white neighbourhood Mostly black neighbourhood Black neighbourhood

14. The Role of Free School Choice Large % of native students goes to school in upper class neighbourhoods % outflow % influx < 25% 25-50% 50-75% > 75% Percentage natives in neighbourhood Primary / Secondary education

15. The Role of Free School Choice Non-native students show a more mixed pattern % outflow % influx < 25% 25-50% 50-75% > 75% Percentage non-natives in neighbourhood Primary / Secondary education

16. The Role of Free School Choice Parents of native pupils: -Special educational denomination -High status school -Quality of education -Not too high % non-native pupils -Culturally similar Parents of non-native pupils: -Quality of education -Special training programs -Neighbourhood Why parents chose different schools...

17. Why is school segregation a problem? (1) Sociologists (Dronkers, Tesser, Gijsberts, Driessen, Paulle, Karstens) point to different reasons: Socio-economic segregation: Educational performance Theory: Students in schools with more disadvantaged students perform worse - level is adjusted to disadvantaged students - less time to serve all students - less social capital Empirical Effects: - Reasonable empirical effects when percentage disadvantaged is > 30% - Balance should be 70% advantaged and 30% disadvantaged (Paulle, 2007)

18. Why is school segregation a problem? (2) Ethnic segregation Educational performance Theory: Same effects, but effects are even stronger for ethnically segregated schools Empirical Evidence - Difficult to measure: strong and complex relation with socio-economic status “Due to the fact that ethnic and socio-economic descent are mutually contaminating, it cannot be determined whether pupils’ ethnicity descent contributes to an explanation of the differences in school records” (Stevens, Clycq, Timmerman, Van Houtte, 2011) - Language skills skills of ethnic minorities improve in more ‘white’ schools but, there are now special programs for students with language deficiencies

19. Why is school segregation a problem? (3) Ethnic segregation Interethnic contact / Social integration Theory -Contact theory: the more contact, the better effects on integration / acceptation -Ethnic competition theory: the more contact, the more competition -Well being of minorities -‘Citizenship’ Empirical Evidence -Not much research on this topic -Mixed schools: more chances on interethnic friendships, but not better perceptions or better integration for those who do not have these friendships. -Better effects on well being for the minority group of students in more mixed groups -No research on the effect on citizenship

20. Why is school segregation a problem? Equal Chances Diversity/ Living together Diversity/ Living together

21. Social Policy in the Netherlands Government: Goals: Increasing interethnic contact: diversity & living together Decreasing ethnic segregated schools Policy:2007: Pilot program of different local pilots subsidized by the state, experimenting with desegregation policies in different cities. 2011 The new government dropped the goal of ethnic desegregation and stopped subsidizing the local pilots.

22. Social Policy in Amsterdam Amsterdam: Agreement on Colourful Primary Schools Goals: Children go to schools in their neighbourhood: diversity & living together Focus on local schools: limiting ‘too black’ and ‘too white’ schools Policy:Neighbourhoods develop ‘placement-policies’ Different pilot projects: local school policy - central application system: assign students to a school in neighbourhood - priority for siblings, students from priority areas and parents’ initiatives Support Parents Initiatives - group applications Housing Policies: desegregate neighbourhoods OutcomesNo clear results yet: process needs more time Pilots are probably extended (time and place)

23. Social Policy in other cities Nijmegen: Goals:Socio-economic desegregation of primary schools: equal chances Ideal balance of 70% / 30% advantaged/disadvantaged students Policy:Pilot project - central application system: city wide (smaller city) - priority for siblings, children from the neighbourhood and children who contribute to the 70% / 30% advantaged/disadvantaged Support for parents by making school choices Support for schools with a mixed population - mixed schools do not lead directly to better integration Outcomes:First choice: 1293Second choice: 46Third choice:14 - 32 objected, 22 went to court, 14 students were rejected - better 70/30 match, more children go to school in neighbourhood

24. Social Policy in other countries United States: ‘Busing’: forced racial desegregation by transporting students by busses 1954: Supreme Court: racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional 1966: Coleman Report: "Equality of Educational Opportunity“ - disadvantaged black children benefited from learning in mixed-race classrooms 1970-1980: Mandatory busing was implemented - protect the rights of the minority students: equal chances Protest: white flight to suburbs or private schools Now: no busing, but still segregation. - black-white achievement gap - high potential black students perform worse in schools with high black enrolment (Hanushek, Rivkin, 2009)

25. Voluntairy Segregation? LGBT’s & School for bullied children

26. Discussion Questions Is segregation a problem? Is it a problem of cities? Is segregation a problem big enough to enforce desegregation by the state? - in order to create equal chances? - in order to make people live together? (diversity) - also when it limits free choice? Can you think of other forms of segregation in your country / city? What kind of desegregation policies would work?

27. Thank you for your attention! Questions?

28. Definition: Ethnic or socio-economic segregation? (2) Ethnic segregation = Socio-economic segregation? Thus: Non-native pupils with a higher socio-economic background go to ‘white’ primary schools. Non-native pupils with a lower socio-economic background go to ‘black’ primary schools % Non-native pupils in primary school Socio-economic status Non-native / non- western pupilsNative pupils LowHighLowHigh <10%3862397 10-24%59411090 25-49%71291684 50-79%87133169 >80%9463664 Total86141387 Source: SCP (2008) Betrekkelijke Betrokkenheid