1. Methods of Observation
Psychology: Chapter 2, Section 3

2. Methods of Observation
We all observe how people act, and often make generalizations from what we see
However, our observations are rather haphazard (not very systematic), and also we tend to observe things that only confirm our preexisting notions
Thus we cannot draw scientific conclusions based only on our unstructured observations
These observations may help us form research questions or tentative hypotheses, but in this section we will learn about more systematic and scientific methods of observation

3. We seem to enjoy observing other people, whether it be from a park bench or restaurant, or even reality TV shows

4. The Testing Method
Psychologists sometimes use psychological tests to learn about human behavior
There are several types of psychological tests
Intelligence tests measure general learning ability
Aptitude tests measure specific abilities and special talents, such as musical ability
Skills tests measure vocational interests
Personality tests measure character traits and temperament, and screen for anxiety or depression

5. There are many different kinds of psychological tests

6. The Case Study Method
A case study is an in depth investigation of an individual or a small group
Because case studies go so in depth about one particular person, the researcher can really learn a lot about that person.
Psychologists use what they learn in a case study to generalize broader principles that apply to the larger population
Case studies describe, but don’t predict
Sigmund Freud developed many of his theories from case studies of people he spoke with

7. An Example of a Case Study
This is a typical case study, written about a man who had recently attempted suicide
Note that the details are specifically about him, and not about all men in general who attempt suicide
This sort of detail is characteristic of a case study

8. Longitudinal Method
In the longitudinal method, researchers study individuals for a long period of time– following them around for years or even decades, checking in maybe once or twice a year
By using this method, psychologists can observe how individuals change over time
However, there is no guarantee that participants will be able to remain available for 5, 10, or 15 years

9. In the longitudinal method, you can observe an individual growing over time

10. Cross-Sectional Method
The cross-sectional method also examines changes over time, while avoiding some of the pitfalls of longitudinal studies
Instead of following a set of individuals over a number of years, researchers select a sample that includes people of different ages
The researchers then compare the behavior of the participants in the different age groups
However, one major disadvantage of comparing different individuals is that researchers can’t be certain when differences were caused by developmental changes vs. the individuals just being different people

11. Cross Sectional studies examine different people in different stages of life to try to extrapolate how life progresses

12. Naturalistic-Observation Method
The naturalistic observation method, sometimes called field study, involves a researcher observing subjects in their natural habitat
The researcher does not interact with the subjects, as that would contaminate the results, rather he or she simply observes from afar

13. Jane Goodall and Dian Fossey conducted field studies of chimpanzees and gorillas

14. Laboratory-Observation Method
Sometimes it is not possible or practical to observe in a natural setting
A laboratory is a more formal place designed for observation and experimentation, but may not be as sterile a room as usually envisioned
For example, an aquarium could serve as a laboratory for a lake for observing fish behavior
In a laboratory, the environment can be more easily controlled, which is a very useful feature for experiments

15. In a famous experiment in a laboratory by A
In a famous experiment in a laboratory by A. Bandura, children were observed to be more aggressive to a “Bobo doll” after seeing others model aggressiveness
Adult modeling aggressiveness
Children imitating aggressiveness

16. Analyzing Observations
When analyzing and interpreting the results from observations, psychologists may measure correlation
The correlation is a measure of how closely one thing is related to another
The more closely two things are related, the higher the correlation
There might be a correlation between height and shoe size– generally, the taller someone is, the larger their shoe size
There does not seem to be much correlation between height and intelligence

17. Positive and Negative Correlation
A positive correlation is when one goes up, the other goes up
There is a positive correlation between the time you spend studying and how well you do in school
Generally, the more you study, the better you will do. There will be exceptions, but that is the general trend
A negative correlation is when one goes up, the other goes down
There is a negative correlation between stress and health– the more stressed you are, the worse your health will be
Things that have no relationship, such as IQ and shoe size, are said to have no correlation

18. Correlations resemble slopes on an x-y axis, and may be positive, negative, or no correlation. The tighter the data around the line, the stronger the correlation

19. Correlation is NOT Causation
Correlation describes relationships, but does NOT reveal cause and effect
Just because two things are related does not mean that one causes the other
Sometimes there is a hidden factor that may cause both things to occur
As ice cream sales increase, the rate of drowning deaths increases sharply.
Therefore, ice cream consumption causes drowning.
The aforementioned example fails to recognize the importance of time and temperature in relationship to ice cream sales.
Ice cream is sold during the hot summer months at a much greater rate than during colder times, and it is during these hot summer months that people are more likely to engage in activities involving water, such as swimming.
The increased drowning deaths are simply caused by more exposure to water-based activities, not ice cream. The stated conclusion is false.

20. Organic food sales and the rate of autism seem to have a very strong correlation, but no one is suggesting that one causes the other

21. Assessment
Complete #1-3 on page 40