1. COGNITION Memory

2. True of False? T/F A woman who could not remember who she was automatically dialed her mother’s number when the police gave her a telephone. T/F Learning must be meaningful if we are to remember it. T/F If you can see, you have a photographic memory. T/F All of our experiences are permanently imprinted on the brain, so the proper stimulus can cause us to remember them exactly. T/F You may always recall where you were and what you were doing on the morning of September 11, 2001. T/F If you study with the stereo on, you would probably do better to take the test with the stereo on.

3. Memory  What is a memory? (podcast-the day my mothers head exploded)  What is its physical state?  How is it created?  What tells it to be formed?  Why do we create memories?  Where is the Engram?

4. Why is memory important? (very simple explanation) Avoidance Behavior:  If we do not learn from a stressful event then we will repeat the event.  We will never learn more efficient ways to avoid such situations.  If we try to hug an angry bear and happen to survive, we want to make sure that we never repeat such an act.  Bears are dangerous.  If I hug them tissue damage will probably ensue.  Don’t hug bears anymore.  Basically survival is quite dependent on learning.

5. Memory How does a physical event become a memory? Event Memory

6. Memory Elements involved in memory formation:  Main requirements- (same as with chemicals)  Speed of onset  Level of arousal  Message potency  Variability  Cognitive stress  Can facilitate or be a detriment  Priming  State of participant when event takes place  Chemicals and hormones in the body  Body temperature

7. Memory  There is no difference between factual, conceptual, procedural or metacognitive learning.  It is all governed by the same process.  Though some forms of learning may involve additional brain regions.

8. Memory Three main stages:  Encoding:  Processing transduced information.  Storage:  Creation of a permanent record.  Retrieval:  Calling back the stored information.

9. Memory EncodingStorage Retrieval (reconstruction) Storage (based on current state)

10. Memory  The same rules apply when remembering an event as when originally encoding the event.  Remember the elements involved in facilitation and degradation of sensory messages discussed in the physiology section.

11. The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory: (Sensory Register)  Preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli.  Processed in different brain regions depending on what sense picks up the stimulus. Working Memory: (Short-term Memory)  Preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal. Long-term Memory:  Stores material organized according to meaning.

12. The Three Stages of Memory  Sensory  Working  Long-term

13. The First Stage: Sensory Memory D J B X H G C L Y

14. The First Stage: Sensory Memory  How many can you recall?  Capacity of sensory memory can be 12 or more items.  All but 3-4 items disappear before they can enter.  There is a separate sensory register for each sense.  Memory images take the form of nerve impulses. Transduction Sensation Nerve Impulse

15. Sensory Stroop interference effect - Stroop Interference Effect Filter Theory of Attention Cocktail Party Effect

16. 2 Types of Sensory Registers  Iconic: Sensory memory of visual stimuli, lasting less than a second.  Echoic: Sensory memory of acoustical stimuli, lasting 3 to 4 seconds.

17. Sequence of Information Processing

18. The First Stage: Sensory Memory

19. The Second Stage: Working Memory  Preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal.  Short-term memory (STM).  Working memory consists of  A central executive Responsible for the selection, initiation and termination of processing routines.  A phonological loop (podcast-music) Deals with sound and phonological processing.  The visiospatial sketch pad Holds information about what we see. Aids in visual planning of future behavior. Contains separate visual, spacial and kinesthetic components. Right Hemisphere storage.

20. The Second Stage: Working Memory  Encoding and storage:  Capacity: 7 +/- 2 “Chunks” of information. (George A. Miller)  Chunk: Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units.  Maintenance rehearsal: Information is repeated keep it from fading while in working memory.  Elaborative rehearsal: Information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM.  Acoustic encoding: Conversion of information to sound patterns in working memory.

21. The Second Stage: Working Memory  Sneak Peak!  Disorders associated with working memory disruptions: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)  We will be covering this in the Psychological Disorders section of this course.

22. Forgetting in STM  Decay theory: A theory that argues that the passage of time causes forgetting.  Interference theory: A theory that argues interference from other information causes forgetting.

23. Sensory Decay George Miller’s Magic Number 7 +/- 2 VCRFBIUSACIA VCRFBIUSACIA VCR FBI USA CIA

24. 2 Types of Rehearsal  Rote rehearsal: Retaining information in STM simply by repeating it over and over.  Elaborative rehearsal: The linking of new information in STM to familiar material stored in long-term memory.

25. The Third Stage: Long-Term Memory Long-Term Memory: Stores material organized according to meaning. (Schemas, Heuristics, Mental Set)  Declarative (explicit) Stores facts  Semantic  Semantic Memory of meanings (of words) and understandings.  Episodic  Episodic Memory of events, times, places, and emotions. Autobiographical Memory  Procedural (implicit)  Long-term memory of skills and procedures.  How to knowledge.

26. The Third Stage: Long-Term Memory  Semantic Memory  Language  Facts  General Knowledge  Episodic Memory  Events  Personal Experiences  Includes memory for:  Motor Skills  Operant Conditioning  Classical Conditioning Declarative MemoryProcedural Memory

27. Types of Long-Term Memory © Prentice Hall, 1999 Explicit (declarative) Implicit (nondeclarative) SemanticEpisodic tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Flashbulb Memory Procedural Dispositions

28. Types of Memory Memory Sensory IconicEchoic Working (STM)EpisodicLong Term PerceptualDeclarative Autobiographical Semantic Procedural

29. Explicit Memory  Memory for information that was intentionally committed to memory or intentionally retrieved from memory.

30. Neural Basis of Learning Long-term Potentiation:  Biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells.  Weak synapse firing alongside a strong synapse causes the weak synapse to strengthen.  Critical element-  Calcium (Ca+) Mesolimbic Pathway: (Dopamine)  Substantia Nigra  Ventral Tegmental Area  Nucleus Accumbens  Amygdala and Hippocampus  Frontal Cortex

31. Neural Basis of Learning

32. Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon (TOT)  The condition of being able to, but not quite, remember something.  TOT becomes more frequent in stressful situations and as we age.  Words similar to target word interfere with recall.  TOT occurs most often with low-usage words.

33. Implicit Memory  Memory for information that either was unintentionally committed to memory or was unintentionally retrieved from memory.

34. Flashbulb Memory  A vivid memory for a highly emotional situation; seems to require an element of surprise.

35. Types of LTM Interference  Retroactive: The process by which new information interferes with the retrieval of old information.  Proactive: The process by which old information interferes with the retrieval of new information.

36. Memory

38. Sneak Peak! Ormrod (2004):  People often remember things in physical situations according to schemas, rather than remembering the actual objects that existed Brewer & Treyens (1981):  30 students placed in office.  9 students remembered seeing books.  No students remembered the skull.  No students remembered the tennis racket.

39. Memory Models Multi-Store Model (Atkinson-Shiffrin Model, 1968)  Long-Term Memory  Episodic  Procedural  Mechanism-Rehearsal  Flashbulb Memory Working Memory (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974)  Short-Term Memory  Central executive  Phonological loop  Visuospatial sketchpad Levels of Processing Memory Model (Craik and Lockhart, 1972)  Depth of processing is paramount

40. Future Work  Serial Position Effect  Recall and Forgetting  Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve  Eyewitness Testamony  Mental Representations  Concepts  Prototypes  Heuristics (One size fits most!)  Small, Medium, Large  Subconscious/Nonconscious processing  Implicit learning  Mental set  Need for cognitive consistency  Bias