1. Concepts, Operationalization, and Measurement
Chapter 4
Concepts, Operationalization, and Measurement

2. Introduction
Because measurement is difficult and imprecise, researchers try to describe the measurement process explicitly
We want to move from vague ideas of what we want to study to actually being able to recognize and measure it in the real world
Otherwise, we will be unable to communicate the relevance of our idea and findings to an audience

3. ?
Abstract tags put on reality
A name for some phenomenon

4. Concepts Abstract tags put on reality A name for some phenomenon
Examples?

5. Concepts
Ex: crime, recidivism, cynicism, intelligence, risk on parole, defendant’s appearance, police patrol….
Ex: age, sex, race, religion, social class

6. Conceptions
Mental images or subjective thoughts about things that we encounter in daily life.
Examples?

7. Conceptualization
Process of specifying precisely what we mean when we use particular terms
Produces an agreed upon meaning for a concept for the purposes of research
Describes the indicators we'll use to measure the concept and the different aspects of the concept

8. Variables Concepts that have been operationalized, or
Concepts that can take on different values

9. “Concepts can be converted into ____________ through operationalization.”

10. Concepts
“Concepts can be converted into variables through operationalization.”

11. Example A theory: What are two concepts used in this theory?
A youth who experienced intense parental control in childhood is less likely to engage in delinquency
What are two concepts used in this theory?

12. Example A theory: What are two concepts used in this theory?
A youth who experienced intense parental control is less likely to engage in delinquency
What are two concepts used in this theory?
“Parental control” (X) & “delinquency” (Y)
Not the variables

13. To test this theory,
The statement about two concepts must be reduced by deduction to a statement of relationship between two variables ?

14. To test this theory,
The statement must be reduced by deduction to a statement of relationship between two variables
Hypothesis

15. [Note]
Theory
Hypothesis
Concepts
Variables
How?

16. [Note]
Theory
Hypothesis
Concepts
Variables
Operationalization

17. Conceptions and Concepts
Clarifying abstract mental images is an essential first step in measurement
“Crime”
Conception – Mental image we have about something
Concepts – Words, phrases, or symbols in language that are used to represent these mental images in communication
e.g., gender, punishment, chivalry, delinquency, poverty, intelligence, racism, sexism, assault, deviance, income

18. Three classes that scientists measure (Kaplan, 1964)
Direct observables – Those things or qualities we can observe directly (color, shape)
Indirect observables – Require relatively more subtle, complex, or indirect observations for things that cannot be observed directly (reports, court transcripts, criminal history records)
Constructs – Theoretical creations; cannot be observed directly or indirectly; similar to Concept

19. Conceptualization
Specifying precisely what we mean when we use particular terms
Results in a set of indicators of what we have in mind
Indicates a presence or absence of the concept we are studying
Violent crime = offender uses force (or threatens to use force) against a victim

20. Indicators and Dimensions
Dimension – Specifiable aspect of a concept
“Crime Seriousness” – Can be subdivided into dimensions
Ex: Dimension – Victim harm
Indicators – Physical injury, economic loss, psychological consequences
Specification leads to deeper understanding

21. Confusion over Definitions and Reality
Concepts are abstract and only mental creations
The terms we use to describe them do not have real and concrete meanings
What is poverty? delinquency? strain?
Reification – Process of regarding as real things that are not

22. Creating Conceptualization Order
Conceptual definition (what is SES?)
Working definition specifically assigned to a term, provides focus to our observations
Gives us a specific working definition so that readers will understand the concept
Operational definition (how will we measure SES?)
Spells out precisely how the concept will be measured

23. Progression of Measurement Steps
Conceptualization
Conceptual Definition
Operational Definition
Measurements in the Real World

24. Operationalization Choices
Operationalization – The process of developing operational definitions
Moves us closer to measurement
Requires us to determine what might work as a data-collection method

25. HOW TO MEASURE?
You may develop the scales to measure the variables “parental control” and “delinquency.”

26. Measurement as “Scoring”
Measurement – Assigning numbers or labels to units of analysis in order to represent the conceptual properties
Careful, deliberate observations of the real world for the purpose of describing objects and events in terms of the attributes composing a variable.
Operationalization specifies the variables and the attributes used in the measurement.
Make observations, and assign scores to them
Easiest way is to find the existing scales through literature review

27. EXAMPLE Variable “parental control” by using the scale
Never 1
Sometimes 2
Usually 3
Always 4
How often do your father know where you are when you are out at night?
How often does your father know who you are with when you are out at night?

28. EXAMPLE Variable “Delinquency” by using the scale
In the last year, how many times have you…
Smoked marijuana?
Beat someone?
Possessed stolen property?
Shoplifted things worth less than $50?
Taken a family member’s car without permission?

29. Measurement must be Exhaustive and Exclusive Measurement
Every variable should have two important qualities:
Exhaustive – You should be able to classify every observation in terms of one of the attributes composing the variable
Mutually exclusive – You must be able to classify every observation in terms of one and only one attribute
Example: Employment status

30. Levels of Measurement
Nominal – Offer names or labels for characteristics (race, gender, state of residence)
Ordinal – Attributes can be logically rank-ordered (education, opinions, occupational status)
Interval – Meaningful distance between attributes (temperature, IQ)
Ratio – Has a true zero point (age, # of priors, sentence length, income)

31. Nominal Measure
A level of measurement describing a variable that has attributes that are merely different, as distinguished from ordinal, interval, or ratio measures
Gender is an example of a nominal measure

32. Ordinal Measure
A level of measurement describing a variable with attributes we can rank-order along some dimension
An example is socioeconomic status as composed of the attributes high, medium, low

33. Interval Measures
A level of measurement describing a variable whose attributes are rank-ordered and have equal distances between adjacent attributes

34. Ratio Measures
A level of measurement describing a variable with attributes that have all the qualities of nominal, ordinal, and interval measures and in addition are based on a “true zero” point

35. Question Which of the following are examples of nominal measures?
gender
religious affiliation
political party affiliation
birthplace
all of these choices

37. Implications of Levels of Measurement
Certain analytic techniques have Levels of Measurement requirements
Ratio level can also be treated as Nominal, Ordinal, or Interval
You cannot convert a lower Level of Measurement to a higher one
Therefore, seek the highest Level of Measurement possible

38. Criteria for Measurement Quality
The key standards for measurement quality are reliability and validity
Measurements can be made with varying degrees of precision
Common sense dictates that the more precise, the better
However, you do not necessarily need complete precision

39. Two Criteria for Measurement Quality
Reliability
Validity

40. RELIABILITY
That quality of measurement method that suggests that the same data would have been collected each time in repeated observations of the same phenomenon
In the context of a survey, we would expect that the question “Did you attend religious services last week?” would have higher reliability than the question “About how many times have you attended religious services in your life?”

41. Methods of Dealing with Reliability Issues
Test-retest method – Make the same measurement more than once – should expect same response both times
Interrater reliability – Compare measurements from different raters; verify initial measurements
Split-half method – Make more than one measure of any concept; see if each measures the concept differently

42. VALIDITY
A term describing a measure that accurately reflects the concept it is intended to measure
Ex: IQ would seem a more valid measure of intelligence than the number of hours spent in the library

43. FACE AND CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY
Face Validity
Quality of an indicator that makes it seem a reasonable measure of some variable
Criterion-Related Validity
Validity that can be assessed by some external criterion

44. CONSTRUCT AND CONTENT VALIDITY
Construct Validity
The degree to which a measure relates to other variables as expected within a system of theoretical relationships
Content Validity
Refers to how much a measure covers the range of meanings included within a concept

45. AN ANALOGY TO VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
A good measurement technique should be both valid (measuring what it is intended to measure) and reliable (yielding a given measurement dependably)