2. Who Needs Vitamin C? “Vitamin C is unique…as its essentiality as a nutrient is restricted to only a limited number of exceptional species among phylogenetically higher animals. In other words, nearly all higher animals can synthesize vitamin C…” 1991

3. Vitamin C Scurvy R.I.P.

4. James Lind (1716 – 1799) “…the most sudden and visible good effects were perceived from the use of the oranges and lemons; one of those who had taken them, being at the end of six days fit for duty.” A treatise of the scurvy, 1753

5. 1933: Vitamin C identified and described. 1934: Vitamin C artificially synthesized. 1957: Scurvy due to lack of enzyme. Evolution is Testable Scurvy, Vitamin C, and Common Ancestry 1907: Scurvy occurs in guinea pigs. 1907 Scurvy occurs in guinea pigs. 1913: Scurvy occurs in other primates. 1913 Scurvy occurs in other primates. 1933 Vitamin C identified and described. 1934 Vitamin C artificially synthesized. 1957 Scurvy due to lack of enzyme. Guinea Pigs Chimpanzees OrangutansMonkeys Tarsiers GibbonsGorillas

6. Vitamin C Production D-GLUCOSE D-GLUCURONIC ACID D-GLUCURONIC ACID LACTONE L-GULONO- LACTONE 2-KETO-GULONO- GAMMA-LACTONE L-ASCORBIC ACID enzyme 1 enzyme 2 enzyme 3 enzyme 4 “GULO” “VITAMIN C” Prediction: If the ancestors of humans, other higher primates, and guinea pigs originally had the ability to synthesize vitamin C, then each of these species should carry evidence of this lost ability in their genes.

7. TACCCCGTGGAGGTACGCTTCACTCGCGGGGACGACATCCTGCTGAGCCCC TACCCTGTGGGGGTGCGCTTCACCCGGGGGGACGACATCCTGCTGAGCCCC TAACCGGTGGGGGTGCGCTTCACCCAAGG-GATGACATCATACTGAGCCCC TACCCGGTGGGGGTGCGCTTCACCCAGAG-GATGACGTCCTACTGAGCCCC TACCTGGTGGGGCTACGCTTCACCTGGAG-GATGACATCCTACTGAGCCCC TACCTGGTGGGGGTACGCTTCACCTGGAG-GATGACATCCTACTGAGCCCC CACTCGCCCTCAGACATCGCCTGCACTGACGGCTTCATGATCCACATGGGC CACTCCCCCTCCGACATTGCCTGAACAGAGGGCATCATGATCCACAGGGGC D-GLUCOSE D-GLUCURONIC ACID D-GLUCURONIC ACID LACTONE L-GULONO- LACTONE 2-KETO-GULONO- GAMMA-LACTONE L-ASCORBIC ACID enzyme 1 enzyme 2 enzyme 3 enzyme 4 “GULO” GULO-related sequence comparison from exon X GULO-related sequence comparison from exon III COW GUINEA PIG STOP COW GUINEA PIG MACAQUE ORANG CHIMP HUMAN GATGACATCATACTGAGCCCC GATGACGTCCTACTGAGCCCC GATGACATCCTACTGAGCCCC premature STOP codons TGA premature STOP codon TGA

8. Human Chimpanzee OrangutanMacaqueGuinea PigCow Deactivation of GULO enzyme

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