1. Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Five Key Features of Cognitive Science Table 7.1 Representations Computers Deemphasis on af- fect, context, cul- ture, and history Interdisciplinary studies Classical philosophical problems Human cognitive activity is explained by representing cognition through internal entities. The computer serves as a model of human information processing or human thought. These concepts are not considered of primary importance in understanding mental processes. There is an emphasis in cognitive psychology on interdisciplinary study to develop the field. Traditional philosophical problems have served as a springboard for issues studied in the cognitive psychology field. The student has an idea or image of some event or person. The computer can be programmed to store large amounts of information in memory. The context that surrounds a student’s thinking does not really influence the basic thinking process. Researchers from psychology and neuroscience work together. Can thinking be represented in the chemistry of the brain? Source: H. Gardner, The Mind’s New Science. Copyright © 1985 Basic Books, New York. Definition/Characteristics Example Key Feature 34

2. Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sequence of Information Processing Figure 7.1 35 From H. C. Ellis and R. R. Hunt, Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology, 5th edition. Copyright © 1993 Wm. C. Brown Communications, Inc. Dubuque, IA.

3. Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Five Key Features of Cognitive Science Table 7.1 Representations Computers Deemphasis on af- fect, context, cul- ture, and history Interdisciplinary studies Classical philosophical problems Human cognitive activity is explained by representing cognition through internal entities. The computer serves as a model of human information processing or human thought. These concepts are not considered of primary importance in understanding mental processes. There is an emphasis in cognitive psychology on interdisciplinary study to develop the field. Traditional philosophical problems have served as a springboard for issues studied in the cognitive psychology field. The student has an idea or image of some event or person. The computer can be programmed to store large amounts of information in memory. The context that surrounds a student’s thinking does not really influence the basic thinking process. Researchers from psychology and neuroscience work together. Can thinking be represented in the chemistry of the brain? Source: H. Gardner, The Mind’s New Science. Copyright © 1985 Basic Books, New York. Definition/Characteristics Example Key Feature 36

4. Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Six Central Tenants of Constructivism 1. We cannot know an objective reality. 2. Knowledge is subjective. 3. Knowledge of two people can be said to be “taken-as-shared” to the extent that their constructions seem to function in the same way in given situations (Cobb, 1991). 4. Knowledge is constructed through the process of adapting to the events and ideas one experiences (Fosnot, 1996; von Glaserfeld, 1996). 5. The construction of knowledge is significantly influenced by one’s environment and by the symbols and materials one uses or has ready access to (Fosnot, 1996). 6. “Readiness to learn” has a different meaning for cognitive constructivists. 37

5. Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Some Differences Between Traditional and Constructivist Classrooms Table 7.2 The primary emphasis is on developing basic skills and building understanding from the “bottom up.” Classroom activities are usually based on textbooks and workbooks. Students are viewed as passive recipients of information supplied by the teacher-expert. Teachers are viewed as experts, providing information to students on predetermined topics. A limited number of correct answers exist and are accepted. Students often work individually on teacher-developed assignments. Assessment is usually done separately from instruction, often taking the form of objective tests. The primary emphasis is on the “big ideas” and developing understanding from the “top down.” Classroom activities are usually based on primary data sources and manipulation of materials. Students are viewed as active knowledge seekers, creating their own personal understandings of information. Teachers are viewed as guides for learning, assisting as students develop and answer their own questions on topics and/or activities of interest to the student. Students’ hypotheses, questions, and views are accepted and used to guide further learning. Students often work collaboratively on projects of their own design. Assessment is usually incorporated into the learning process, often taking the form of teacher observations, student performances or exhibitions of projects, and/or student self- assessments. Traditional Approach Constructivist Approach Source: Adapted from J. G, Brooks & M. G. Brooks, 1993. 38

6. Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Gestalt Circles 39

7. Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Perceptual Principles 40