1. Chapter 20

2. 2

3. Globalization  International responses to devastation caused by Krakatoa eruption in 1883 and the 2010 earthquake in Haiti show growth of globalization  Globalization not always positive  How should U.S. respond to public concern over problems of globalization? 3

4. Figure 20.1 A Two-Dimensional Framework of International Ideologies 4

5. Making Foreign Policy: The Constitutional Context  Foreign policy a nation’s general plan to defend and advance national interests  Constitution gives Congress four responsibilities in foreign affairs and the courts one  Despite no direct responsibility listed in Constitution, president dominant actor in foreign policy 5

6. Constitutional Bases of Presidential Authority in Foreign Policy  Article II of Constitution defines presidential powers:  Commander in chief of military  Power to make treaties  Appoints U.S. ambassadors and heads of executive departments  Receives (or refuses to receive) ambassadors from other countries 6

7. The President and Foreign Policy  Over time, presidents have used constitutional provisions, statues, Supreme Court decisions, and precedents of action to become leading actor in foreign policy  However, Congress plays strong supporting role 7

8. Constitutional Bases of Congressional Authority in Foreign Policy  Declare war  Raise revenue and dispense funds  Call out state militias to repel invasions  Regulate commerce with foreign nations  Support, maintain, govern, and regulate the army and navy  Define and punish piracy and offenses against the laws of nations  Legislate 8 Congress empowered to :

9. Congress and Foreign Policy  While most salient power, Congress has declared war only five times  Legislative power used to design programs or provide funding (or not)  Senate must approve treaties and presidential appointments involved in foreign policy 9

10. The Senate and Major Treaties  Senate rarely rejects a treaty  Defeated only 21 of thousands considered  One major defeat – rejected U.S. membership in League of Nations  Most recent defeat: rejection of Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1999 10

11. Skirting the Senate Through Executive Agreements  Presidents can make pacts with other heads of countries with executive agreements  Must conform to Constitution, laws of Congress, and existing treaties  Until 1972, texts not reported to Congress  May involve minor bureaucratic business or issues unlikely to win Senate approval 11

12. The North American Free Trade Agreement  NAFTA negotiated as executive agreement by President George H.W. Bush  President Clinton gained majority support for passage in both House and Senate  President George W. Bush signed Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) in 2004  Implemented via presidential proclamation in 2006 12

13. After NAFTA, CAFTA 13

14. Constitutional Roots of Statutory Powers in Foreign Policy  Congress passed laws allowing president leeway in several areas  Discretionary funds  Transfer authority  Disposal of excess government stocks and equipment 14

15. Military Policy  Presidents, acting as commander in chief of armed forces, have committed American troops in undeclared wars  Congress passed War Powers Resolution in 1973 as response to military action in Viet Nam  Framework used to gain Congressional approval for actions in Afghanistan and Iraq 15

16. Ambassadorial Appointments  Senate must confirm President’s ambassadorial appointments  May use confirmation hearings to prod presidents for different appointees  Presidents can bypass approval process via recess appointments 16

17. Making Foreign Policy: Organization and Cast  First executive department (1789) was Department of Foreign Affairs  Renamed State Department  Congress passed National Security Act after WWII and created  Department of Defense  National Security Council  Central Intelligence Agency 17

18. The Department of State  Helps formulate U.S. foreign policy  Executes and monitors U.S. foreign policy throughout world  Secretary of State highest-ranking person in president’s cabinet  Actual power depends on presidential approach to foreign policy  President Obama appointed Hillary Clinton, his campaign rival, as Secretary of State 18

19. The Department of State  Headed by presidential appointees; permanent employees selected through civil service merit system  Employees staff and service embassies and consulates  Critics claim department lacks initiative and creativity  Lacks strong domestic constituency, a drawback in a pluralist system 19

20. A Prison? No, the U.S. Embassy in Baghdad 20

21. The Department of Defense  Congress replaced War Department and Department of the Navy with the Department of Defense in 1947  Wanted unity and coordination among armed forces  Secretary of Defense a civilian  Power depends on both the individual’s and president’s vision of the job  Supervises civilian secretaries of each military branch, who then oversee military leaders  All work together to recommend policy positions 21

22. The National Security Council  Group of advisors who help president to coordinate details of domestic, foreign, and military affairs related to national security  Role played varies with each president  Statutory members: president, vice president, secretary of state, and secretary of defense  Staff headed by president’s National Security Advisor, retired Marine Corps General James L. Jones 22

23. Intelligence Community  Effective foreign policy requires accurate information, or “intelligence”  Sixteen agencies in executive branch make up Intelligence Community  Most prominent Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and National Security Agency (NSA)  Vast majority of budget controlled by DOD  Office of the Director of National Intelligence charged with coordinating operations of all sixteen agencies 23

24. Agencies of Intelligence 24

25. Report from 9/11 Commission  Many believe 9/11 attacks due to failure of intelligence  9/11 Commission report proposed sweeping reorganization of intelligence agencies and responsibilities  In response, Congress passed the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 25

26. Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004  Amended 1947 National Security Act  Restructured intelligence community  Created Office of Director of National Intelligence (DNI)  Took over duties of director of central intelligence  Critics warned DNI lacked sufficient budget or clout to succeed 26

27. The Central Intelligence Agency  Created after WWII to gather intelligence about actions and intentions of foreign powers  Also empowered to “perform other functions and duties” related to national security  Current activities both overt and covert  Since 9/11, considerable controversy over CIA’s covert intelligence operations  Current leader is Leon Panetta 27

28. Revealing the CIA’s “Family Jewels” 28

29. The National Security Agency  Created in 1952; highly secret operations  More employees and larger budget than CIA  Uses supercomputers, satellites, and other high-tech equipment for foreign electronic surveillance  SIGINT, or SIGnals INTelligence  Current head is Lt. General Keith Alexander 29

30. Other Parts of the Foreign Policy Bureaucracy  Many government agencies provide input in foreign policy decisions  For some, foreign affairs chief concern  The Agency for International Development  Others charged with domestic policy oversight have foreign policy concerns  Department of Agriculture  Department of Commerce  Department of Energy 30

31. Other Parts of the Foreign Policy Bureaucracy  Foreign policy-making machinery extremely complex  Many other agencies and organizations involved, including private businesses and state and local governments  As social and economic issues become more global, even more will be involved 31

32. A Review of U.S. Foreign Policy  A president’s ideology affects his interpretation of international events  Generally more internationalist than Congress  President and Congress must work together to develop foreign policy 32

33. Emerging from Isolationism  Monroe Doctrine of 1823, or isolationism, defined U.S. foreign policy in 19 th century  Later in century, U.S. increasingly involved in Latin America and Pacific  WWI first meaningful participation in European politics  After failure of Senate to ratify League of Nations treaty, isolationism resumed 33

34. The Same in Any Language 34

35. Emerging from Isolationism  U.S. emerged from WWII a superpower  National security interests now worldwide  Soviet Union, initially an ally, now a rival  Soviet expansion in Europe a threat to freedom and order  American foreign policy experts feared more conflicts in Europe if Soviet expansion and Communism unchecked 35

36. Cold War and Containment  The Cold War designed to frustrate Soviet plans for expansion  Policy of containment resulted in high defense expenditures  U.S. also pushed for free trade, fixed currency rate exchange rates, and view of U.S. as “banker of the world”  Marshall Plan designed to rebuild Europe 36

37. Cold War and Containment  North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) established in 1949 for mutual defense  United Nations not successful forum for U.S. Cold War policies  U.S. policy of nuclear deterrence led to a mutual assured destruction (MAD) situation  Both U.S. and Soviet Union engaged in nation building by supporting developing nations 37

38. Vietnam and the Challenge to Cold War Concerns  Soviets supported several “wars of national liberation,” including in Vietnam  U.S. moved to strengthen nonCommunist institutions in South Vietnam to prevent Soviet takeover  Troops entered conflict in mid-1960s  American public disagreed strongly about Vietnam policies  U.S. pulled out of Vietnam in 1973 38

39. Emerging from the Cold War  President Nixon and Henry Kissinger developed Nixon Doctrine to guide U.S. interventions  A policy of détente with other nations  Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT 1) one result  President Carter’s philosophies and focus very different  More open, except for peace negotiations between Egypt and Israel  More of a focus on human rights 39

40. The End of the Cold War  President Reagan refocused U.S. attention on Soviet Union in 1981  Policy of peace through strength included increased defense spending  Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in Soviet Union in 1985  Changes resulted in treaty outlawing intermediate-range nuclear forces with U.S.  Fall of Berlin Wall in 1989 symbolized end of Cold War 40

41. Foreign Policy Without the Cold War  Saddam Hussein’s invasion of Kuwait threatened U.S. ally and oil supply  President George H.W. Bush put together coalition to counterattack in 1991  President Clinton replaced policy of containment with policy of enlargement and engagement  Criticized by some because no clear guidelines for application 41

42. The Hot War on Terrorism  Like President Clinton, President George W. Bush had no foreign policy experience  September 11 attacks transformed his presidency  After successes in Afghanistan, developed doctrine of preemptive action and attacked Iraq, toppling Saddam Hussein  When no weapons of mass destruction found, public support plummeted 42

43. Iraq and Afghanistan  President Obama saw Iraq as “war of choice” and Afghanistan “war of necessity”  Designed exit strategy for Iraq and increased troops in Afghanistan  In surprising move, awarded Nobel Peace Prize in 2009 for efforts in promoting international cooperation 43

44. Figure 20.2 A Tale of Two Wars 44

45. Who Will Do the “Right Thing” in World Affairs? 2008 and 2009 45

46. From Foreign Policy to Global Policy  After Cold War, U.S. moved to more global policy due to globalization of issues  Inevitably requires global action/cooperation  Most prominent global organization United Nations  U.S. concerns often differ from other Security Council members  Because of sovereignty concerns, U.S. does not always follow decisions of multinational bodies 46

47. Global Policy Issue Areas  Nations today much more interdependent  Many issues cross borders, blending domestic and international concerns  Conservatives fear if responses to issues require decision making to be subject to international organizations, U.S. sovereignty threatened  How do you define sovereignty in today’s world? 47

48. Investment and Trade  After WWII, U.S. dominated world economy  Economic policy decisions useful tactically in Cold War  Budget deficits in 1980s partially financed by selling U.S. treasury obligations to foreign investors  Soaring dollar resulted in shift in balance of trade; some investors less interested  1990s saw new foreign investors 48

49. Investment and Trade  Many concerned about U.S. dependence on foreign investors  Some countries have huge sovereign wealth funds  Investments made more for political reasons than economic reasons  Today, U.S. no longer dominates world economy  China now second largest economy  U.S. dependence on oil imports economic problem 49

50. Growing Dependence on Foreign Oil 50

51. Foreign Trade  As foreign trade became more important to U.S., policy responses needed  Several options available:  Free trade  Fair trade  Managed trade  Protectionism 51

52. Foreign Trade  Free trade – market without restrictions  Principle of comparative advantage  Fair trade – international agreements to outlaw unfair business practices  World Trade Organization founded 1995  Managed trade – government interventions to produce policy results  Protectionism – barriers to free trade imposed 52

53. Human Rights, Poverty, and Foreign Aid  Western democracies willing to wage war to protect human rights  Relationship between U.S. human rights policy goals and economic policy goals often problematic  Some big emerging markets (BEMs) have questionable human rights records 53

54. Human Rights, Poverty, and Foreign Aid  U.S. pursues policy objectives through  Favorable trade terms  Development aid  Debt forgiveness  Loans with favorable credit terms  Donation of U.S. goods to developing nations  Foreign aid easy target for budget cuts  Obama to review participation in International Criminal Court 54

55. Figure 20.3 Foreign Aid to Developing Countries 55

56. The Environment  Environmental issues challenge for foreign policy makers  Biodiversity  Climate change/global warming  Another example of freedom vs. order  U.S. not a party to Biodiversity Treaty or Kyoto Protocol  President Obama signed Copenhagen agreement in 2009 56

57. Summit Meeting 57

58. How Nations Rate on the Environment http://www.epi.yale.edu/home 58

59. The Public and Global Policy  Foreign policy making historically does not fit majoritarian model  Public opinion usually only affects policy on issues related to national security  Most important effect on foreign policy from business organizations and their leaders  More a pluralist model of policy making  Some decisions opposite that of public opinion 59