2.  Life in communities has changed over the years.  One of those changes is in transportation. Transportation is a way of moving people or things from one place to another.

3.  Land  Water  Air

5. There are three main elements of automobile transportation:  The road users (Drivers and pedestrians)  The vehicle  The road way and geometric design

6. LOCATION SURVEY AND CONTROLS

7.  Art of observing and making measurements of relative portions of natural and manmade features on the surface of earth and plotting these measurements to some suitable scale to form a map.

8. Highway surveys involve measurement and calculation of distances, angles (horizontal and vertical) and elevations.  The data is then used to form a base map with contour lines and longitudinal cross- sections.

9. Three major categories 1. Ground Surveys Basic equipment is used for location survey  Measuring Tape.  Levels.  Theodolite.  Electronic distance measuring devices (EDM’s).

10. 2. Remote Sensing  Measurement of distances and elevations by using devices located above the surface of earth.  Data is collected through airplanes and satellites using global positioning systems (GPS).  Photogrammetry (data is obtained with the help of aerial photographs) is the most commonly used technique.

11. 3. Computer Graphics  Available/collected data is compiled and stored in the electronic form.  Photogrammetric and general survey data is combined digitally with the help of softwares.  The files can then be plotted in the form of maps.

12. Location controls are basically the factors that effects the selection of location of a highway Major factors are:  Topography.  Soil Characteristics.  Environmental factors (noise and air pollution).  Economic factors.

13. Highway location process have four phases  Desk study of available data/information  Reconnaissance survey  Preliminary location survey  Final location survey

14.  Available data in the form of reports, maps,aerial photographs and charts is studied.  Data is obtained form government authorities e.g. transport department (NHA), geological survey of Pakistan etc.  Similarly, information is required to be obtained on hydrology, mining, agriculture and weather.

15. Data is obtained on the following characteristics:  Engineering (topography, geology, traffic volume and climate)  Social (land use trends and zoning)  Environmental (air, noise and water pollution, wildlife, historic and archaeological sites)  Economic (construction cost, agricultural, commercial and industrial trends)

16. “Reconnaissance is the process of identifying several possible routes & evaluating the feasibility of these routes for a highway between specific points”  Aerial photographs are often used for the purpose, especially for rural areas.

17. Feasible routes are identifies by keeping in mind the following factors  Terrain and soil conditions.  Serviceability of route to industrial and residential areas.  Crossing of other transportation facilities like rivers, rail and highways.  Route directness.

18.  Identification of control points for each feasible/selected route.  Routes are then plotted on a map.

19. The position of the feasible routes are set as closely as possible by Establishing all control points.  Determining preliminary vertical and horizontal alignments of each control point  Economic and environmental feasibility of the routes  The best route is then selected as the preliminary alignment for the highway.

20.  Initial cost of the project and future economic effects  Road user cost  Construction cost  Road user benefits  Economic drawbacks from the project Information also helps in deciding the type of highway for a particular route.

21. Environment Includes  plant  animals  Human community  Effects on quality of life for all (animals and human being)

22. An environmental impact statement should be submitted which should include  Available alternatives  Assessment of all positive and negative impacts  Short and long term effects  Unavoidable adverse environmental effects  Use of natural resources  Each route should be studied e.g. Positive and negative effects of at grade or grade seperated intersection.

23. Detailed layout of the selected route is carried out at this stage  Centreline of the road.  Horizontal and vertical alignment.  Property lines.  Intersecting roads.  Position of structures and drainage channels.

24. Factors that effect location of highway in urban areas  Connection to local streets (which street to connect,traffic flow)  Right-of-way acquisition (land cost, road on elevated structures, noise and aesthetics)  Coordination with other transportation systems (integrated system, public transport)  Provisions for bicycles and pedestrians (sidewalks,crosswalks, traffic control devices, ramps, bicycle path)