1. Section B: Psychology of sport performance
1. Individual aspects of sport performance

2. Syllabus Personality Trait perspectives Social learning perspectives
Interactionist approaches
Justification of the limitations of personality profiling in sport

3. Syllabus
Attitudes
The nature of attitudes, inconsistencies and prejudice in sporting situations
Understanding of their origins and influences (including the effects of socialisation)
Identification of the components of attitudes (cognitive, affective, behavioural)
Identification of the links between attitudes and behaviour in sporting situations
Cognitive dissonance
Persuasive communication

4. Syllabus
Motivation
Atkinson and McClelland’s theory of achievement motivation (the need to achieve and the need to avoid failure)
Awareness of sport-specific achievement motivation (i.e. competitiveness)

5. Definition of personality
The sum of an individuals characteristics which make them unique
The pattern of psychological characteristics that make each person unique
The unique psychological and behavioural characteristics of an individual
Those relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguish them from other people, making them unique but at the same time permit a comparison between individuals

6. Measuring personality
Measuring and assessing individual personality traits may be useful in identifying and predicting future sporting talents from a young age
There are however, questions over validity and reliability as well as the time consuming and expensive nature of such testing
The following are methods by which personality can be measured:
Interviews
Questionnaires
Observation

7. Interviews and Questionnaires allow an element of 'cheating' by answering questions in such a way as to influence the outcome. During observations the individual must be aware of the process as observations in secret are unethical.
This however, leaves the testing open to changes in the individuals behaviour as a result of being watched

8. Types of tests Eysenck’s personality inventory (EPI)
Cattell’s 16 personality factors questionnaire
Sport competition anxiety test (SCAT)
Interviews
Rorschach inkblot test

9. Testing Reliability Validity
Reliable research achieves consistency of results after two or more applications of tests
Validity
Internal
Assesses whether the research measures what it is supposed to
The instrument or method
External
Assesses whether the results of the research can be generalised to the population as a whole

10. Trait theory
A relatively stable, highly consistent attribute that exerts a widely generalised causal effect on behaviour‘
Inherited / genetic (from parents)
The following are examples of personality traits:
Shy
Outgoing
Arrogant
Relaxed
Temperamental
Sensitive

11. Eysenck’s theory
He identified two dimensions of personality which act as continuums, with an individuals personality falling anywhere along the two lines, as shown below
These two dimensions are stable/unstable and introverted/extroverted.
For example, if an individual is introverted (shy of social contact) but stable, they are likely to be reliable, calm and controlled. An extroverted (enjoys social affiliation) unstable individual is likely to be tough, aggressive and excitable.

13. Recticular activating system
Regulates the amount of arousal experienced by the brain
Extroverts prefer high arousal situations
Their RAS operates at low levels of activity
High arousal situations are stimulating
Enables them to drive toward their goals
Introverts prefer low arousal situations
Their levels of internal arousal are high and do not require extra external stimuli for drive or motivation

14. Narrow band approach
The narrow band approach is a more straightforward approach to personality which states that every person has either a Type A or Type B personality.
Type A: Impatient; highly strung; intolerant; high stress levels
Continue with tasks such as training schedules, even when they feel tired
Type B: Relaxed, tolerant; low stress levels
Suffer less from anxiety

15. Sheldon’s somatotyping personality formation
This theory is based on body shape relating to personality:
Ectomorph (tall, slim figure): Self-conscious; tense; private; introverted
Endomorph (short, rounded figure): tolerant; sociable; relaxed
Mesomorph (muscular, athletic figure): extroverted, risk taker, assertive

16. Data collection and trait theory
Attempts to profile sporting personalities using trait theory have been largely UNSUCCESSFUL
Personality can change with the situation

17. Problems with questionnaires
The respondents may fail to understand the question asked
…or may be tempted to give the answer they feel they ought to give
…this leads to a biased response
How often the test is done – frequency can develop a better “picture”

18. Problems with observing
If the subjects realise that they are being watched, their behaviour can change
It is a subjective way of assessing personality
…observers need to be trained so consistent results can be found

19. Problems with physical testing
Includes the measure of heart rate to assess anxiety and stress
Sports performers do not like to be wired up as it can restrict movement
…difficult to get measurements in real-life situations (games)

20. Bandura’s social learning theory
Bandura believed that personality is learnt through our experiences, observing those around us and imitating their behaviour.
Dependent on the situation (the environment you are in)
Possible to control arousal levels and modify behaviour if correct reinforcement is applied
Positive / negative / punishment

21. Interactionist approach
The theory states that behaviour is a combination of both inherent (built-in) personality traits and environmental factors. The following equation describes the theory:
B = F (P.E)
Behaviour is the Function of Personality and Environment
The theory also states that Personality traits can be used to predict behaviour in some situations, but this is not exclusive.

22. Attitudes
A relatively stable belief or view on a specific attitude object
Developed through past experiences, significant others, the media or any other interaction with the social environment
May be positive, negative or neutral

23. Attitude made up of 3 parts
The triadic model
Cognitive component
Relates to what we think or believe (thoughts/ideas)
Formed through past experiences and what we have learned from others
Affective component
Relates to feelings and emotions
Also depend on past experiences
Behavioural component
Relates to what we do and how we behave
Not always consistent with our attitude

24. Attitude tests
Methods used to assess the opinions and feelings of an individual, which are used to describe their attitude
Observation of body language and behaviour
Physiological tests (galvanic skin response)
Questionnaires (Likert, Thurston and Osgood scales)
Testing for attitude can be difficult due to the problems of reliability and validity

25. La Piere: prejudice and attitude
Look up this study
*Hint – Chinese in America*
Prejudice can affect behaviour
Attitudes expressed as a behaviour in one context are different to the attitudes expressed in a written response
In sport: a black football player is openly welcomed to the club but not picked for the team because of racial prejudice

26. Changing attitudes
Should you wish to alter an individual’s attitude the two most commonly employed methods are
Cognitive dissonance
Persuasive communication

27. Cognitive dissonance
Method of changing an attitude by creating feelings of psychological discomfort with conflicting cognitions within the performer
Must experience opposing beliefs (dissonance), and to return to a consistent state one must become dominant
E.G. an individual knows swimming is beneficial to health, but does not enjoy participating as they think it is boring, so they do not take part
To create dissonance the person may be encouraged to attend a group where the emphasis is on fun and enjoyment

28. Persuasive communication
The person is exposed to new information or experiences in an attempt to change their mind
The effectiveness of this depends on:
The status of the person delivering the message
The quality of that message
The nature of the audience
The situation at the time

29. Attitudes associated with physical education and sport
Some have positive attitudes because:
They believe in the value of exercise
They enjoy the activities
They are good at the activities
They experience excitement because of the physical challenge
They experience relaxation and see it as an escape from stress (catharsis)

30. Attitudes associated with physical education and sport
Some have negative attitudes because:
They believe that it is harmful
They dislike the experiences involved
They lack the physical or perceptual skills necessary
They experience stress or anxiety when they participate

31. Motivation
Motivation is thought to be a combination of the drive within us to achieve our aims and the outside factors which affect it. With this in mind, motivation has the following two forms, intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.

32. Intrinsic motivation
This is motivation from within. A desire to perform well and succeed. The following will be true:
Desire to overcome the problem or task
Development of skills and habits to overcome that problem
Rehearsal of successful habits until they are perfect
A feeling of pride and enjoyment in performing the skill
Repeated goal setting in order to progress and maintain motivation

33. Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation comes from a source outside of the performer. These are things which can encourage the athlete to perform and fall into two groups:
Tangible rewards: Physical rewards such as medals and money. These should be used sparingly with young athletes to avoid a situation where winning a prize is more important than competing well
Intangible rewards: Praise, recognition and achievements. These should be used on a regular basis to encourage the athlete to repeat the behaviour which earned the praise.

34. Motivation, arousal and performance
Motivation is related to the intensity and direction of behaviour. That is, the level of arousal and the way in which we behave affect our motivation and hence performance. There are currently two theories which try to explain this link:

35. Hull’s drive theory

36. Inverted U law

37. There are three factors which surround this theory:
Activity
Skill level 
Personality: Extroverts perform better in high-pressure, high arousal situations. Introverts tend to do better in a state of low arousal. This is thought to be connected to part of the brain called the RAS or reticular activating system. This controls the level of arousal. Introverts have a highly stimulated RAS and so avoid stressful situations, whereas extroverts need high arousal situations to stimulate the RAS

38. Motivation and personality
Some people are more naturally driven to achieve set goals than others. These people like to push and challenge themselves. What is it within this type of person that motivates them? And why do others not have this desire?
It is thought that when it comes to motivation, there are two personality types:

39. Need to achieve These are the people that thrive on a challenge.
They are usually determined, quick workers who take risks and enjoy being assessed.
Gain pride and satisfaction from participation
Display perseverance
like feedback and personal responsibility

40. Need to avoid failure
These people tend to avoid challenges because they do not want to risk failing.
They are slow workers who avoid responsibility, are easily dissuaded from taking part and do not like being assessed.

41. We can better this theory by including the following…
Within those who compete in sports, there are those who are ego oriented and those who are task oriented.
Ego oriented - measure their success on beating others and being the 'top' competitor
Task oriented - Measure their success by their own achievements such as running a p.b.

42. Competitiveness
Sport Orientation Questionnaire
Gill 1986

43. Self-confidence A specific form of confidence, known as self-efficacy.
This is not an overall self-confidence but varies within each situation we find ourselves in.
Most people will choose to participate in sports at which they have a high self-efficacy, or belief in their ability at the task in hand.

44. Self-efficacy is affected by four factors:
Performance accomplishments - Past achievements in the activity encourage a feeling of self-efficacy
Vicarious experiences - Seeing someone else, who you believe to be of the same or lower standard to yourself, complete the task well provides confidence that you too can achieve
Verbal persuasion - Encouragement and positive words from those close to you can instill a sense of confidence
Emotional arousal - Control over arousal levels provides greater self-efficacy
These four factors can help athletes with low self-efficacy to boost their confidence and perform better by:
Setting achievable goals and highlighting successes
Using a peer to demonstrate new techniques
Promoting support and encouragement from the athletes family and friends
Using stress management techniques to aid relaxation

45. Experience
Past performances and experiences will influence an athletes confidence.
Their last performance will affect they way the approach the next performance.
Weiner related this to examinations and produced a 2D model. This was not thought to be specific enough to sports and so Roberts and Pascuzzi adapted the model in 1979

47. Successes are often attributed to internal causes whereas failure is often blamed on external factors such as equipment and officials! This is called a self-serving bias.
Repeated failures or disappointments often lead to the belief that failure is inevitable in certain situations, leading to feelings that the outcome is uncontrollable. This is known as learned helplessness.

48. Attributions
The perceived reasons for the success or failure of an event or pattern of behaviour

49. Attribution retraining
Involves the coach or teacher developing and changing an individual’s perception of failure, allowing them to deal with it effectively and improve future performances, avoiding learned helplessness
Goal setting is vital in this process, especially the use of outcome or task goals rather than performance goals