1. Language Change Studies language change from 1700 (eighteenth century) to present... The “Late Modern” period, when there is a concerted effort at standardization

2. Standardization: the fixing of norms/standards to English (grammar, spelling, lexis etc.) and its variations Synchronic change: change occurring at a fixed “point” or “moment” in time (this moment, though, is theoretical or imaginary – we might be taking “the eighteenth century” as our “moment”) Diachronic change: Change occurring across historical time

3. “Drivers” of Change: Science & Technology New words (often Greek/Latin in derivation) borrowed or coined as needed Scientific innovation during the Renaissance (roughly C16-mid C17) and the Enlightenment (roughly mid C17 – C18) required expansion of the lexicon; no language for the new discoveries New inventions require new words (e.g., a machine that washes the dishes is called... um... a dishwasher [neologism; compound])

4. “Drivers” of Change: Travel Travel – because of trade and tourism/leisure industry – brings different languages and cultures into contact with one another More borrowings/loan words (e.g., “curry”; in C18 “currey,” when it was a neologism without standard spelling)

5. “Drivers” of Change: Social, Political, Ideological Changes in public attitudes (e.g., towards gender/race) make certain lexical choices more/less acceptable Political correctness exerts a pressure: – some words undergo pejoration, & fall out of use; – Coinages/neologisms replace older, now archaic terms; – changing attitudes can affect which registers will be adopted in certain contexts

6. “Drivers” of Change: Media Might affect attitudes (& therefore register – journalism more/less formal today that 100 years ago?) Introduce coinages, initialisms, acronyms Slang/colloquialisms become part of “standard” lexicon (e.g., “Gotcha”) Hyperbole [“hy-per-b(u)lly”] and abbreviation (initialisms, acronyms, clippings) typical of “journalese”

7. Change through abbreviation Initialism (e.g., HQ) Acronym (e.g., SCUBA) Clipping (also “truncation” & “shortening”): Reduction of a word by dropping one or more syllables; specific to lexical/semantic field (e.g., from School: exam(ination), math(ematic)s) Reasons/Effects: Make specialist/expert language more accessible/common knowledge (e.g., DNA & BSE) Save time and space – important in commercial publishing and some specialist/academic writing (avoids clumsy repetition of long noun phrases) Humorous (can affect tenor) – e.g., WAG

8. How new words enter the lexicon Coinages/neologisms Borrowings/loan words Compounds Portmanteaus/Blends Back formation Conversion Affixation

9. Back Formation Removal of imagined affix from an existing word. E.g., “edit” (C18) from “editor” “Editor” actually the root/base word

10. Conversion When a word is “converted” to another word class, without any morphological change. Produce (verb & noun) Google (verb & noun)

11. Affixation Prefixing – E.g., “mega-”; “super-” (Pinker calls it “promiscuous” because...) Suffixing (especially verbing & nominalization) – E.g., -ization & -ize (radicalize/radicalization)

12. Backformation, conversion, affixation often reflect significant cultural shift E.g., “radicalization”/“radicalizing” – common since so-called “War on Terror” “Edit” as back-formation of “editor” – from late C18, reflecting spread of literacy, standardization, book production etc.

13. Semantic Shift/Drift Amelioration Pejoration Weakening: lessening of intensity of a word (e.g., “soon”: used to mean “straightaway”) Strengthening: increasing intensity of word (e.g., “appalled”: feeble, pale; now deeply dismayed) Broadening/Generalization: expansion of meanings/connotations of a word Narrowing/Specialization: Opposite of broadening

14. Semantic Shift through metaphor Broadening can occur because of figurative/metaphorical uses of words: Metaphor Euphemism: A mild figure of speech, designed to mitigate Idiom

15. Amelioration Pejoration Weakening Narrowing/specialization Broadening/generalization Polysemy Connotation Denotation Metaphor Euphemism Idiom Lexicon Political correctness: Archaism Register Slang/Colloquialism Journalese Overt Prestige Covert Prestige Antonomasia Eponym Trademark Erosion/Proprietary Name

16. Playdough!!

17. Define Standardization Synchronic change Diachronic change

18. “Drivers” of Change: Science & Technology New words (often Greek/Latin in derivation) borrowed or coined as needed Scientific innovation during the Renaissance (roughly C16-mid C17) and the Enlightenment (roughly mid C17 – C18) required expansion of the lexicon; no language for the new discoveries New inventions require new words (e.g., a machine that washes the dishes is called... um... a dishwasher [neologism; compound])

19. “Drivers” of Change: Travel Travel – because of trade and tourism/leisure industry – brings different languages and cultures into contact with one another More borrowings/loan words (e.g., “curry”; in C18 “currey,” when it was a neologism without standard spelling)

20. “Drivers” of Change: Social, Political, Ideological Changes in public attitudes (e.g., towards gender/race) make certain lexical choices more/less acceptable Political correctness exerts a pressure: – some words undergo pejoration, & fall out of use; – Coinages/neologisms replace older, now archaic terms; – changing attitudes can affect which registers will be adopted in certain contexts

21. “Drivers” of Change: Media Might affect attitudes (& therefore register – journalism more/less formal today that 100 years ago?) Introduce coinages, initialisms, acronyms Slang/colloquialisms become part of “standard” lexicon (e.g., “Gotcha”) Hyperbole [“hy-per-b(u)lly”] and abbreviation (initialisms, acronyms, clippings) typical of “journalese”

22. Change through abbreviation Initialism (e.g., HQ) Acronym (e.g., SCUBA) Clipping (also “truncation” & “shortening”): Reduction of a word by dropping one or more syllables; specific to lexical/semantic field (e.g., from School: exam(ination), math(ematic)s) Reasons/Effects: Make specialist/expert language more accessible/common knowledge (e.g., DNA & BSE) Save time and space – important in commercial publishing and some specialist/academic writing (avoids clumsy repetition of long noun phrases) Humorous (can affect tenor) – e.g., WAG Types of abbreviation and their effects

23. How do new words enter the lexicon? Coinages/neologisms Borrowings/loan words Compounds Portmanteaus/Blends Back formation Conversion Affixation

24. Back Formation Removal of imagined affix from an existing word. E.g., “edit” (C18) from “editor” “Editor” actually the root/base word

25. Conversion When a word is “converted” to another word class, without any morphological change. Produce (verb & noun) Google (verb & noun)

26. Backformation, conversion, affixation often reflect significant cultural shift E.g., “radicalization”/“radicalizing” – common since so-called “War on Terror” “Edit” as back-formation of “editor” – from late C18, reflecting spread of literacy, standardization, book production etc. Effects of backformation, conversion, & affixation

27. Semantic Shift/Drift Amelioration Pejoration Weakening: lessening of intensity of a word (e.g., “soon”: used to mean “straightaway”) Strengthening: increasing intensity of word (e.g., “appalled”: feeble, pale; now deeply dismayed) Broadening/Generalization: expansion of meanings/connotations of a word Narrowing/Specialization: Opposite of broadening Processes of semantic shift