1. LIN 69321 Unix Lecture 4 Hana Filip

2. LIN 69322 File Management with Shell Commands The verbose listing shows the file permissions of a given file: -rwxr-xr-x directories have a "d" in the first column regular files have a "-". the remaining 9 characters indicate owner, group, and world permissions of the file An "r" indicates it's readable "w" is writable, "x" is executable A dash in the column instead of a letter means that particular permission is turned off.

3. LIN 69323 File Management with Shell Commands r readable w writable x executable - permission is turned off -rwxr-xr-x a plain file that is read-write-execute by the owner, and read- execute by group and world. drwx------ a directory that is read-write-execute by owner, and group and world have no permissions at all.

4. LIN 69324 File Management with Shell Commands % chmod [permissions] [file] Changes the permissions of the named file. You can use numbers: % chmod 755 index.html The first number translates to permissions by the owner. The second is permissions for the group. The third is permissions for everyone. Number Perms 0 --- no permissions 1 --x executable only 2 -w- writable only 3 -wx writable and executable 4 r--- readable only 5 r-x readable and executable 6 rw- readable and writable 7 rwx readable, writable, and executable

5. LIN 69325 File Management with Shell Commands A second way of setting permissions is with letters: % chmod u+rwx index.html % chmod go+rx index.html u is the owner's ("user's") permissions g is the group permissions o is "other" or world permissions. The + sign turns the stated permissions on; the — sign turns them off If you want to change a file so that it's group writable, but not readable or executable, you'd do: % chmod g+w,g-rx index.html

6. LIN 69326 Example of a simple shell script # This script displays the date, time, # username and current directory. echo "Date and time is:" date echo "Your username is: `whoami`" echo "Your current directory is:" pwd

7. LIN 69327 Example of a simple shell script # This script displays the date, time, # username and current directory. echo "Date and time is:" date echo "Your username is: `whoami`" echo "Your current directory is:" pwd

8. LIN 69328 Example of a simple shell script # This script displays the date, time, # username and current directory. lines beginning with a hash (#) are comments and are not interpreted by the Shell.

9. LIN 69329 Example of a simple shell script # This script displays the date, time, # username and current directory. echo "Date and time is:" When used as a Shell command echo echo prints its argument When echo ing multiple words, they must be placed within quotes (single or double)

10. LIN 693210 Example of a simple shell script # This script displays the date, time, # username and current directory. echo "Date and time is:" date echo "Your username is: `whoami`" The backquotes (`) around the command whoami illustrate the use of COMMAND SUBSTITUTION: To include the output from one command within the command line for another command, enclose the command whose output is to be included within `backquotes`.

11. LIN 693211 Executing the shell script Before using a file as a shell script you must change its access permissions so that you have execute permission on the file, otherwise the error message Permission deniedis displayed. To give yourself execute permission for the file containing the script use the command: % chmod u+rwx display To run the shell script, simply type its name at the prompt. The commands in the script will then execute one at a time as though you were typing them in at the terminal.

12. LIN 693212 Executing the shell script % chmod u-x display % display display: Permission denied.

13. LIN 693213 Searching for something in a file GREP The grep family is a collection of three related programs for finding patterns in files. Their names are grep, fgrep, and egrep. The name grep has its origin in the phrase "Get Regular Expression and Print” grep is a full-blown regular-expression matcher fgrep = "fixed string grep” only searches for strings egrep = “extended grep”

14. LIN 693214 Searching for something in a file fgrep fgrep: the easiest (but not fastest) one to use Syntax: % fgrep [options] 'search string’ filenames Interpretation: In the name fgrep the f stands for "Fixed string", and not "Fast" (contrary to what the man page may tell you). The fgrep program finds all the lines in a file that contain a certain fixed string. So, for example, I could find all occurrences of CA in the files in the current working directory simply by typing this command: % fgrep CA *

15. LIN 693215 Searching for something in a file fgrep Like many UNIX filters, it can take as many file names as you like to supply. And of course it permits various adverbs that specify options; two useful ones are -i ignore the difference between upper case and lower case when deciding what is a match -v reverse the effect of the search by outputting only the lines that don't match % fgrep -i CA * % fgrep -v CA *

16. LIN 693216 Searching for something in a file fgrep The key limitation of fgrep is that you cannot use it to get approximate matches, or matches of more complicated patterns that cannot be described by just giving a fixed string. Sometimes you are not quite sure what string you are looking for; for example, you might know only that the word you are seeking begins with z and ends with -ic, and had the sequence gm in it somewhere. What you need, then, is not a program that will find the matching lines for you if you give it the exact string you need to find, but rather a program that can understand a language in which you can say things like "begins with z and ends with -ic or -ics and had gm in it somewhere."

17. LIN 693217 Searching for something in a file grep called up by giving a command that has this form: % grep [options] pattern description files_to_search_in % grep -i 'pull[aeiou][mn]’ shakespeare bad_phone_numbers display This means, "without distinguishing between upper and lower case, search the files shakespeare bad_phone_numbers display for lines that contain pull followed by a vowel letter followed by an m or an n ". Thus it is looking for Pullum, Pullam, Pullen, PULLUN, pullum@grove.ufl.edu, etc., etc. The expression pull[aeiou][mn] is a pattern description covering the name Pullum and most common variants of it. Thus it is looking for Pullum, Pullam, Pullen, PULLUN, pullum@grove.ufl.edu.pullum@grove.ufl.edu The pattern descriptions used with grep are in a language called the language of regular expressions. This is one of the most important and fruitful developments in modern computer science, and in order to use grep you need to understand regular expressions thoroughly.

18. LIN 693218 Searching for something in a file grep There are various dialects of the regular expression language that are used by various UNIX programs. Here we will be talking about grep and its extended cousin egrep. (Read the excellent summary with examples in Unix in a Nutshell, particularly chapter 6, and do man grep on a NetBSD machine to check the details of the GNU grep that runs on those machines. (GNU: pronounced guh-noo, approximately like canoe; launched in 1984 to develop a complete Unix-like operating system which is free software, often referred to as LINUX) Note that the grep that runs on other machines may be a different program, with lots of differences in its behavior from the GNU version.

19. LIN 693219 Searching for something in a file grep There are various dialects of the regular expression language that are used by various UNIX programs. Here we will be talking about grep and its extended cousin egrep. (Read the excellent summary with examples in Unix in a Nutshell, particularly chapter 6, and do man grep on a NetBSD machine to check the details of the GNU grep that runs on those machines. (GNU: pronounced guh-noo, approximately like canoe; launched in 1984 to develop a complete Unix-like operating system which is free software, often referred to as LINUX) Note that the grep that runs on other machines may be a different program, with lots of differences in its behavior from the GNU version.

20. LIN 693220 Searching for something in a file grep Example: “The match the phrase that begins with z at the beginning of a line and ends in -ic or -ics at the end of the line, and it has gm in it somewhere”, is expressed in the language of regular expressions in this form: ^z.*gm.*ics*$ To be more precise, what this regular expression means is: "beginning of line followed by z followed by optional other material followed by gm followed by optional other material followed by -ic followed by zero or more occurrences of s followed by end of line" It can therefore be used in a grep command to search for a word in a dictionary where each word is on a separate line meeting the description: % grep '^z.*gm.*ics*$' dictionary Search result: zeugmatic

21. LIN 693221 Searching for something in a file grep The most trivial case of a regular expression is that of a fixed string of the sort that fgrep recognizes. Fixed strings are regular expressions that are matched only by strings identical to themselves. The regular expression Z is matched by any occurrence of Z. There happens to be only one line in The Great God Pan (/class/lin6932/c6932aab/machen.txt) that matches it, namely the middle line of these three: remained. These three, however, were 'good lives,' but yet not proof against the Zulu assegais and typhoid fever, and so one morning Aubernoun woke up and found himself Lord Because the middle line matches the expression Z, you can fetch (a copy of) that line out of the file like this: % grep Z machen.txt not proof against the Zulu assegais and typhoid fever, and so

22. LIN 693222 Searching for something in a file grep % fgrep Z machen.txt fgrep would do the same thing. But what fgrep cannot do is to call for all lines with Au possibly followed by some other lower-case letters and then an n. That is accomplished by the regular expression Au[a-z]*n this RE is matched by any sequence of a capital A followed by a lower-case u followed by zero or more letters in the range lower-case a to lower-case z followed by lower-case n. This means it will be matched by any string containing a word like word like any of these: Aubernoun, Augustine, Austin, etc.

23. LIN 693223 Searching for something in a file grep % fmt -1 machen.txt | tr -d '[:punct:] ' | grep 'Au[a-z]*n' | sort -u The fmt command is to break the words up and put them one on each line the tr -d '[:punct:]' command erases all punctuation, and spaces the sort -u command sorts the search result alphabetically

24. LIN 693224 Searching for something in a file grep % grep 'Au[a-z]*n' machen.txt Au[s t r a l a b r a c a d a b r a l a l i o l a s i a]n Au[ a-z ]*n

25. LIN 693225 Searching for something in a file grep Example: The zipcodes in the near vicinity of the UC campus are 95060 (Santa Cruz west of the river), 95062 (Live Oak), 95064 (UCSC), 95065 (East Santa Cruz), 95066 (Scotts Valley). Suppose you wanted to extract from a file called addresses, containing one full name and address on each line, just the addresses of people living in these areas. Assume some people type a space after CA and others don't, and some write several spaces. The following regular expression describes the set of zipcodes you want: CA *9506[024-6]. This grep command will find just the lines in the file addresses that contain zipcodes for people who live in near the campus: % grep 'CA *9506[024-6]' addresses

26. LIN 693226 Searching for something in a file grep Example: Suppose you want only the 9-digit zipcodes, that's easy too: % grep 'CA *9506[024-6]-[0-9]\{4\}' addresses

27. LIN 693227 Searching for something in a file grep Example: Suppose you were looking to see whether there were any words beginning with a in a file called shakespeare. You might type % grep a* shakespeare

28. LIN 693228 Searching for something in a file egrep Some simple tasks would be a bit of a chore just using grep. Suppose we wanted to add Ben Lomond (CA 95005), Davenport (CA 95017), and Felton (CA 95018). What we need here is the disjunction: for the 5-digit zipcodes, the strings we want will match either CA *9506[024-6] or CA *95005 or CA *9501[78] or. Now, we can certainly do that: we can simply call grep three separate times, and amalgamate all the results. We cannot amalgamate all the searches into something like CA *950[016][024-8], because that defines a set that is too big; it lets in 95004, for example, and that's Aromas, way the other side of Watsonville. The way to do it is to use the extended regular expressons provided by the egrep program. In egrep, you can use parentheses to group parts of the expression and the pipe symbol to mean or. So (AB)|C means "either AB or C", while A(B|C) means "A followed by either B or C", and so on. Thus we could use:% egrep 'CA *950((05)|(6[024-6])|(1[78]))' addressesThere are a few other things that egrep allows but grep does not. For example, in egrep regular expressions you can say a+ to mean "a sequence of one or more as", or [a-z]+ to mean "a sequence of one or more lower-case letters". In grep regular expressions you would have to say aa* and [a-z][a-z]* respectively to get these effects.

29. LIN 693229 Searching for something in a file egrep The way to do it is to use the extended regular expressons provided by the egrep program. In egrep, you can use parentheses to group parts of the expression and the pipe symbol to mean or. So (AB)|C means "either AB or C", while A(B|C) means "A followed by either B or C", and so on. Thus we could use:% egrep 'CA *950((05)|(6[024-6])|(1[78]))' addressesThere are a few other things that egrep allows but grep does not. For example, in egrep regular expressions you can say a+ to mean "a sequence of one or more as", or [a-z]+ to mean "a sequence of one or more lower-case letters". In grep regular expressions you would have to say aa* and [a-z][a-z]* respectively to get these effects.

30. LIN 693230 Searching for something in a file egrep So we can use: % egrep 'CA *950((05)|(6[024-6])|(1[78]))' addresses There are a few other things that egrep allows but grep does not. For example, in egrep regular expressions you can say a+ to mean "a sequence of one or more as", or [a-z]+ to mean "a sequence of one or more lower-case letters". In grep regular expressions you would have to say aa* and [a-z][a-z]* respectively to get these effects.

31. LIN 693231 File Management with Shell Commands Changing to another directory % cd.. [RETURN] go up a directory tree % cd [DIRECTORY] [RETURN] change to a subdirectory % cd /tmp to change to some other directory on the system, you must type the full path name

32. LIN 693232 File Management with Shell Commands Create a directory % mkdir [DIRECTORY.NAME] [RETURN] Remove a directory % rmdir [DIRECTORY.NAME] [RETURN]

33. LIN 693233 Searching for something in a file > cd.. > cd c6932aab > ls display shakespeare > cp shakespeare ~ c6932aad > cd > ls shakespeare

34. LIN 693234 Searching for something in a file % grep [options] pattern filenames % fgrep [options] string filenames fgrep (or "fast grep") only searches for strings grep is a full-blown regular-expression matcher Some of the valid options are: -i case-insensitive search -n show the line# along with the matched line -v invert match, e.g. find all lines that do NOT match -w match entire words, rather than substrings

35. LIN 693235 Searching for something in a file with GREP % grep -inw ”thou" shakespeare find all instances of the word ”though" in the file “shakespeare”, case- insensitive but whole words and display the line numbers

36. LIN 693236 Grep grep '^smug' files {'smug' at the start of a line} grep 'smug$' files {'smug' at the end of a line} grep '^smug$' files {lines containing only 'smug'} grep '\^s' files {lines starting with '^s'} grep '[Ss]mug' files {search for 'Smug' or 'smug'} grep 'B[oO][bB]' files {search for BOB, Bob, BOb or BoB } grep '^$' files {search for blank lines} grep '[0-9][0-9]' file {search for pairs of numeric digits}

37. LIN 693237 Grep grep '[^a-zA-Z0-9] {anything not a letter or number} grep '[0-9]\{3\}-[0-9]\{4\}' {999-9999, like phone numbers} grep '^.$' {lines with exactly one character} grep '"smug"' {'smug' within double quotes} grep '"*smug"*' {'smug', with or without quotes} grep '^\.' {any line that starts with "."} grep '^\.[a-z][a-z]' {line start with "." and 2 lc letters}

38. LIN 693238 Egrep The version of grep that supports the full set of operators mentioned above is generally called egrep (for extended grep) % egrep '(mine|my)' shakespeare