1. Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario
PowerPoint Presentation to Accompany Management Third Canadian Edition John R. Schermerhorn, Jr. Barry Wright
Prepared by: Jim LoPresti
University of Colorado, Boulder
Revised by: Dr. Shavin Malhotra
Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario 1

2. Chapter 14: Motivation Theory and Practice
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3. Chapter 14 Learning Objectives
14.1 Explain how individual needs influence motivation.
14.2 Explain the process theories of motivation.
14.3 Describe the role reinforcement plays in motivation.
14.4 Describe the alternative approaches to job design.
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4. Individual Needs and Motivation
Types of content theories:
Hierarchy of needs theory
ERG theory
Two-factor theory
Acquired needs theory
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5. Individual Needs and Motivation
Motivation and individual needs
Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.
Needs—unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual.
Explain workplace behaviour and attitudes.
Create tensions that influence attitudes and behaviour.
Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction.
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6. Individual Needs and Motivation
Hierarchy of needs theory
Developed by Abraham Maslow.
Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behaviour and attitudes.
Lower-order needs:
Physiological, safety, and social needs.
Desires for physical and social well being.
Higher-order needs:
Esteem and self-actualization needs.
Desire for psychological growth and development.
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7. Individual Needs and Motivation
Hierarchy of needs theory
Deficit principle - A satisfied need is not a motivator of behaviour.
Progression principle - A need at one level does not become activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied.
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8. Figure 14.2 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs.
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9. Individual Needs and Motivation
ERG theory
Developed by Clayton Alderfer.
Three need levels:
Existence needs — desires for physiological and material well-being.
Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.
Growth needs — desires for continued psychological growth and development.
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10. Individual Needs and Motivation
ERG theory
Any/all needs can influence behaviour at one time.
Frustration-regression principle - An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated.
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11. Individual Needs and Motivation
Two-factor theory
Developed by Frederick Herzberg.
Hygiene factors:
Elements of the job context.
Sources of job dissatisfaction.
Satisfier factors:
Elements of the job content.
Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.
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12. Figure 14.3 Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
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13. Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory
Developed by David McClelland.
People acquire needs through their life experiences.
Needs that are acquired:
Need for Achievement (nAch)
Need for Power (nPower)
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
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14. Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory
Need for Achievement (nAch) - desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.
People high in (nAch) prefer work that:
Involves individual responsibility for results.
Involves achievable but challenging goals.
Provides feedback on performance.
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15. Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory
Need for Power (nPower)
Desire to control other persons, to influence their behaviour, or to be responsible for other people.
Personal power versus social power.
People high in (nPower) prefer work that:
Involves control over other persons.
Has an impact on people and events.
Brings public recognition and attention.
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16. Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons.
People high in (nAff) prefer work that:
Involves interpersonal relationships.
Provides for companionship
Brings social approval.
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17. Process Theories of Motivation
How people make choices to work hard or not.
Choices are based on:
Individual preferences.
Available rewards.
Possible work outcomes.
Types of process theories:
Equity theory.
Expectancy theory.
Goal-setting theory.
Self-efficacy theory.
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18. Process Theories of Motivation
Equity theory
Developed by J. Stacy Adams.
When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation.
Perceived inequity.
Perceived equity.
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19. Figure 14.4 Equity theory and the role of social comparison.
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20. Process Theories of Motivation
Equity theory
People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing:
Work inputs.
Rewards received.
Comparison points.
Situation.
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21. Process Theories of Motivation
Managerial implications of equity theory:
Underpaid people experience anger.
Overpaid people experience guilt.
Perceptions of rewards determine motivational outcomes.
Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if not eliminated.
Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity controversies in the workplace.
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22. Process Theories of Motivation
Expectancy theory
Developed by Victor Vroom.
Key expectancy theory variables:
Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance.
Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards.
Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes.
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23. Figure 14.5 Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation.
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24. Process Theories of Motivation
Expectancy theory
Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion:
M = E x I x V
If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low.
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25. Process Theories of Motivation
Managerial implications of expectancy theory—
To maximize expectancy, managers should:
Select workers with ability.
Train workers to use ability.
Support work efforts.
Clarify performance goals.
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26. Process Theories of Motivation
Managerial implications of expectancy theory—
To maximize instrumentality, managers should:
Clarify psychological contracts.
Communicate performance-outcome possibilities.
Identify rewards that are contingent on performance.
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27. Process Theories of Motivation
Managerial implications of expectancy theory—
To maximize valence in a positive direction, managers should:
Identify individual needs.
Adjust rewards to match individual needs.
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28. Process Theories of Motivation
Goal-setting theory
Developed by Edwin Locke.
Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating.
Motivational effects of task goals:
Provide direction to people in their work.
Clarify performance expectations.
Establish a frame of reference for feedback.
Provide a foundation for behavioural self- management.
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29. Process Theories of Motivation
Key issues and principles in the goal-setting process:
Set specific goals.
Set challenging goals.
Build goal acceptance and commitment.
Clarify goal priorities.
Provide feedback on goal accomplishment.
Reward goal accomplishment.
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30. Process Theories of Motivation
Goal-setting theory
Participation in goal setting:
unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting.
management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation.
when participation is not possible, workers will respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist.
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31. Process Theories of Motivation
Self-Efficacy Theory
a person’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task
Capability directly affects motivation
higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy.
self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting.
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32. Process Theories of Motivation
Self-Efficacy Theory
Enactive mastery – person gains confidence through positive experience
Vicarious modeling – learning by observing others
Verbal persuasion – encouragement from others that one can perform a task
Emotional arousal – high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation
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33. Reinforcement Theory of Motivation
Fundamentals of reinforcement theory: reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences on behaviour.
Law of effect: impact of type of consequence on future behaviour.
Operant conditioning:
Developed by B.F. Skinner.
Applies law of effect to control behaviour by manipulating its consequences.
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34. Reinforcement Theory of Motivation
Operant conditioning strategies:
Positive reinforcement - Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.
Negative reinforcement - Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.
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35. Reinforcement Theory of Motivation
Operant conditioning strategies:
Punishment - Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence.
Extinction - Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.
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36. Reinforcement Theory of Motivation
Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on
Law of contingent reinforcement — Reward delivered only if desired behaviour is exhibited.
Law of immediate reinforcement — More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has.
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37. Reinforcement Theory of Motivation
Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:
Clearly identify desired work behaviours.
Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.
Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards.
Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards.
Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.
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38. Reinforcement Theory of Motivation
Schedules of reinforcement:
Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each time a desired behaviour occurs.
Intermittent reinforcement rewards behaviour only periodically.
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39. Reinforcement Theory of Motivation
Guidelines for using punishment:
Tell the person what is being done wrong.
Tell the person what is being done right.
Match the punishment to the behaviour.
Administer punishment in private.
Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.
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40. Figure 14.7 Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality management.
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41. Motivation and Job Design
A collection of tasks performed in support of organizational objectives.
Job design
The process of creating or defining jobs by assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups.
Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result.
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42. Motivation and Job Design
Job simplification
Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks.
Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth.
Automation
Total mechanization of a job.
Most extreme form of job simplification.
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43. Motivation and Job Design
Potential advantages of job simplification:
Easier and quicker training of workers.
Workers are less difficult to supervise.
Workers are easier to replace.
Development of expertise in doing repetitive tasks.
Potential disadvantages of job simplification:
Productivity suffers.
Cost increases due to absenteeism/ turnover of unhappy workers.
Poor performance may result from worker boredom/ alienation.
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44. Figure 14.8 Basic job design alternatives.
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45. Motivation and Job Design
Job rotation and job enlargement:
Expands job scope.
Job rotation
Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments.
Job enlargement
Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers.
Horizontal loading.
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46. Motivation and Job Design
Job enrichment
Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by expanding its content.
Expands both job scope and job depth.
Frequently accomplished through vertical loading.
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47. Motivation and Job Design
Critical psychological states:
Experienced meaningfulness of work.
Experienced responsibilities for work outcomes.
Knowledge of actual results of work activities.
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48. Motivation and Job Design
Core job characteristics:
Skill variety.
Task identity.
Task significance.
Autonomy.
Feedback.
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49. Figure 14.9 Job design essentials characteristics model
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50. Motivation and Job Design
Improving core job characteristics:
Form natural units of work.
Combine tasks.
Establish client relationships.
Open feedback channels.
Practice vertical loading.
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51. Motivation and Job Design
Flexible working hours
Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours.
Core time — all employees must be at work.
Flextime — allows employees to schedule around personal and family responsibilities.
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52. Motivation and Job Design
Potential benefits of flexible working hours:
People have greater autonomy in work scheduling while ensuring maintenance of work responsibilities.
Organizations can attract and retain employees who have special non-work responsibilities.
Worker morale may be improved.
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53. Motivation and Job Design
Compressed workweek
Any work schedule that allows a full-time job to be completed in less than the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts.
Benefits — more leisure time, lower commuting costs, lower absenteeism, and potentially improved performance.
Disadvantages — increased fatigue, family adjustment problems, increased scheduling problems, possible customer complaints, and union opposition.
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54. Motivation and Job Design
Job sharing
One full-time job is split between two or more persons.
Telecommuting
A work arrangement that allows a portion of scheduled work hours to be completed outside of the office.
Hotelling
Virtual offices
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55. Motivation and Job Design
Potential advantages of telecommuting:
Freedom from
Constraints of commuting.
Fixed hours.
Special work attire.
Direct contact with supervisors.
Increased productivity.
Fewer distractions.
Being one’s own boss.
Having more personal time.
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56. Motivation and Job Design
Potential disadvantages of telecommuting:
Working too much.
Having less personal time.
Difficulty in separating work and personal life.
Less time for family.
Feelings of isolation.
Loss of visibility for promotion.
Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees from a distance.
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57. Motivation and Job Design
Part-time work
Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee.
Contingency workers
Part-time workers who supplement the full- time workforce, often on a long-term basis.
Now constitute 30 percent of the American workforce.
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58. Motivation and Job Design
Implications of part-time work:
Provides employers with flexibility in controlling labour costs and dealing with cyclical labour demands.
Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive.
Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe benefits.
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59. COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright (The Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information contained herein. 59