1. MAE 1202: AEROSPACE PRACTICUM
Lecture 9: Airfoil Review and Finite Wings
April 1, 2013
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department
Florida Institute of Technology
D. R. Kirk

2. READING AND HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS
Reading: Introduction to Flight, by John D. Anderson, Jr.
Chapter 5, Sections
Lecture-Based Homework Assignment:
5.21, 5.22, 5.23, 5.25, 5.26, 5.27, 5.30
Due: Friday, April 12, 2013 by 5:00 pm
Exam 1 solution posted online

3. ANSWERS TO LECTURE HOMEWORK
5.21: Induced Drag = N
5.22: Induced Drag = 1,200 N
Note: The induced drag at low speeds, such as near stalling velocity, is considerable larger than at high speeds, near maximum velocity. Compare this answer with the result of Problem 5.20 and 5.21
5.23: CL = 0.57, CD = 0.027
5.25: e = 0.913, a0 = per degree
5.26: VStall = 19 m/sec = 68.6 km/hour
5.27: cl = 0.548, cl = 0.767, cl = 0.2
5.30: CL/CD = 34.8

4. SKETCHING CONTEST
Choose any aerospace device you like (airplane, rocket, spacecraft, satellite, helicopter, etc.) but only 1 entry per person
Drawing must be in isometric view on 8.5 x 11 inch paper
Free hand sketching, no rulers, compass, etc.
Submit by Final Exam
Winner: 10 points on mid-term, 2nd place: 7 points, 3rd place: 5 points
Decided by TA’s and other Aerospace Faculty

5. DO NOT SUBMIT

6. SUMMARY OF VISCOUS EFFECTS ON DRAG (4.21)
Friction has two effects:
Skin friction due to shear stress at wall
Pressure drag due to flow separation
Total drag due to
viscous effects
Called Profile Drag
Drag due to
skin friction
Drag due to
separation = +
Less for laminar
More for turbulent
More for laminar
Less for turbulent
So how do you design?
Depends on case by case basis, no definitive answer!

7. TRUCK SPOILER EXAMPLE Note ‘messy’ or turbulent flow pattern High drag
Lower fuel efficiency
Spoiler angle increased by + 5°
Flow behavior more closely resembles a laminar flow
Tremendous savings (> $10,000/yr) on Miami-NYC route

8. LIFT, DRAG, AND MOMENT COEFFICIENTS (5.3)
Behavior of L, D, and M depend on a, but also on velocity and altitude
V∞, r ∞, Wing Area (S), Wing Shape, m ∞, compressibility
Characterize behavior of L, D, M with coefficients (cl, cd, cm)
Matching Mach and Reynolds
(called similarity parameters)
M∞, Re
M∞, Re
cl, cd, cm identical

9. LIFT, DRAG, AND MOMENT COEFFICIENTS (5.3)
Behavior of L, D, and M depend on a, but also on velocity and altitude
V∞, r ∞, Wing Area (S), Wing Shape, m ∞, compressibility
Characterize behavior of L, D, M with coefficients (cl, cd, cm)
Comment on Notation:
We use lower case, cl, cd, and cm for infinite wings (airfoils)
We use upper case, CL, CD, and CM for finite wings

10. SAMPLE DATA: NACA 23012 AIRFOIL
Flow separation
Stall
Lift Coefficient cl
Moment Coefficient
cm, c/4 a

11. AIRFOIL DATA (5.4 AND APPENDIX D) NACA 23012 WING SECTION
Re dependence at high a
Separation and Stall
cd vs. a
Dependent on Re cl
cl vs. a
Independent of Re cd
R=Re
cm,a.c. vs. cl very flat
cm,a.c.
cm,c/4 a cl

12. EXAMPLE: BOEING 727 FLAPS/SLATS

13. EXAMPLE: SLATS AND FLAPS

14. AIRFOIL DATA (5.4 AND APPENDIX D) NACA 1408 WING SECTION
Flaps shift lift curve
Effective increase in camber of airfoil
Flap extended
Flap retracted

15. PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AND LIFT
Lift comes from pressure distribution over top (suction surface) and bottom (pressure surface)
Lift coefficient also result of pressure distribution

16. PRESSURE COEFFICIENT, CP (5.6)
Use non-dimensional description, instead of plotting actual values of pressure
Pressure distribution in aerodynamic literature often given as Cp
So why do we care?
Distribution of Cp leads to value of cl
Easy to get pressure data in wind tunnels
Shows effect of M∞ on cl

17. EXAMPLE: CP CALCULATION

18. COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTION: EFFECT OF M∞ ON CP
For M∞ < 0.3, r ~ const
Cp = Cp,0 = 0.5 = const M∞

19. COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTION: EFFECT OF M∞ ON CP
Effect of compressibility
(M∞ > 0.3) is to increase
absolute magnitude of Cp as M∞ increases
Called: Prandtl-Glauert Rule
For M∞ < 0.3, r ~ const
Cp = Cp,0 = 0.5 = const M∞
Prandtl-Glauert rule applies for 0.3 < M∞ < 0.7

20. OBTAINING LIFT COEFFICIENT FROM CP (5.7)

21. COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTION SUMMARY
If M0 > 0.3, use a compressibility correction for Cp, and cl
Compressibility corrections gets poor above M0 ~ 0.7
This is because shock waves may start to form over parts of airfoil
Many proposed correction methods, but a very good on is: Prandtl-Glauert Rule
Cp,0 and cl,0 are the low-speed (uncorrected) pressure and lift coefficients
This is lift coefficient from Appendix D in Anderson
Cp and cl are the actual pressure and lift coefficients at M∞

22. CRITICAL MACH NUMBER, MCR (5.9)
As air expands around top surface near leading edge, velocity and M will increase
Local M > M∞
Flow over airfoil may have
sonic regions even though
freestream M∞ < 1
INCREASED DRAG!

23. CRITICAL FLOW AND SHOCK WAVES
MCR

24. CRITICAL FLOW AND SHOCK WAVES
‘bubble’ of supersonic flow

25. AIRFOIL THICKNESS SUMMARY
Note: thickness is relative
to chord in all cases
Ex. NACA 0012 → 12 %
Which creates most lift?
Thicker airfoil
Which has higher critical Mach number?
Thinner airfoil
Which is better?
Application dependent!

26. THICKNESS-TO-CHORD RATIO TRENDS
Root: NACA 6716
TIP: NACA 6713
F-15
Root: NACA 64A(.055)5.9
TIP: NACA 64A203

27. MODERN AIRFOIL SHAPES Boeing 737 Root Mid-Span Tip

28. SUMMARY OF AIRFOIL DRAG (5.12)
Only at transonic and
supersonic speeds
Dwave=0 for subsonic speeds
below Mdrag-divergence
Profile Drag
Profile Drag coefficient relatively constant with M∞ at subsonic speeds

29. FINITE WINGS

30. INFINITE VERSUS FINITE WINGS
High AR
Aspect Ratio
b: wingspan
S: wing area
Low AR

31. AIRFOILS VERSUS WINGS Low Pressure Low Pressure High Pressure
Upper surface (upper side of wing): low pressure
Lower surface (underside of wing): high pressure
Flow always desires to go from high pressure to low pressure
Flow ‘wraps’ around wing tips

32. FINITE WINGS: DOWNWASH

33. FINITE WINGS: DOWNWASH

34. EXAMPLE: 737 WINGLETS

35. FINITE WING DOWNWASH Chord line Local relative wind
Wing tip vortices induce a small downward component of air velocity near wing by dragging surrounding air with them
Downward component of velocity is called downwash, w
Chord line
Local relative wind
Two Consequences:
Increase in drag, called induced drag (drag due to lift)
Angle of attack is effectively reduced, aeff as compared with V∞

36. ANGLE OF ATTACK DEFINITIONS
Chord line
Relative Wind, V∞
ageometric
ageometric: what you see, what you would see in a wind tunnel
Simply look at angle between incoming relative wind and chord line
This is a case of no wing-tips (infinite wing)

37. ANGLE OF ATTACK DEFINITIONS
Chord line
aeffective
Local Relative Wind, V∞
aeffective: what the airfoil ‘sees’ locally
Angle between local flow direction and chord line
Small than ageometric because of downwash
The wing-tips have caused this local relative wind to be angled downward

38. ANGLE OF ATTACK DEFINITIONS
ageometric: what you see, what you would see in a wind tunnel
Simply look at angle between incoming relative wind and chord line
aeffective: what the airfoil ‘sees’ locally
Angle between local flow direction and chord line
Small than ageometric because of downwash
ainduced: difference between these two angles
Downwash has ‘induced’ this change in angle of attack

39. INFINITE WING DESCRIPTION
LIFT
Relative Wind, V∞
LIFT is always perpendicular to the RELATIVE WIND
All lift is balancing weight

40. FINITE WING DESCRIPTION
Finite Wing Case
Relative wind gets tilted downward under the airfoil
LIFT is still always perpendicular to the RELATIVE WIND

41. FINITE WING DESCRIPTION
Finite Wing Case
Induced Drag, Di
Drag is measured in direction of incoming relative wind (that is the direction that the airplane is flying)
Lift vector is tilted back
Component of L acts in direction parallel to incoming relative wind → results in a new type of drag

42. 3 PHYSICAL INTERPRETATIONS
Local relative wind is canted downward, lift vector is tilted back so a component of L acts in direction normal to incoming relative wind
Wing tip vortices alter surface pressure distributions in direction of increased drag
Vortices contain rotational energy put into flow by propulsion system to overcome induced drag

43. INDUCED DRAG: IMPLICATIONS FOR WINGSV∞
Infinite Wing
(Appendix D)
Finite Wing

44. HOW TO ESTIMATE INDUCED DRAG
Local flow velocity in vicinity of wing is inclined downward
Lift vector remains perpendicular to local relative wind and is tiled back through an angle ai
Drag is still parallel to freestream
Tilted lift vector contributes a drag component

45. TOTAL DRAG ON SUBSONIC WING
Profile Drag
Profile Drag coefficient relatively constant with M∞ at subsonic speeds
Also called drag due to lift
May be calculated from
Inviscid theory:
Lifting line theory
Look up

46. INFINITE VERSUS FINITE WINGS
High AR
Aspect Ratio
b: wingspan
S: wing area
Low AR b

47. HOW TO ESTIMATE INDUCED DRAG
Calculation of angle ai is not trivial (MAE 3241)
Value of ai depends on distribution of downwash along span of wing
Downwash is governed by distribution of lift over span of wing

48. HOW TO ESTIMATE INDUCED DRAG
Special Case: Elliptical Lift Distribution (produced by elliptical wing)
Lift/unit span varies elliptically along span
This special case produces a uniform downwash
Key Results:
Elliptical Lift Distribution

49. ELLIPTICAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION
For a wing with same airfoil shape across span and no twist, an elliptical lift distribution is characteristic of an elliptical wing plan form
Example: Supermarine Spitfire
Key Results:
Elliptical Lift Distribution

50. HOW TO ESTIMATE INDUCED DRAG
For all wings in general
Define a span efficiency factor, e (also called span efficiency factor)
Elliptical planforms, e = 1
The word planform means shape as view by looking down on the wing
For all other planforms, e < 1
0.85 < e < 0.99
Goes with square of CL
Inversely related to AR
Drag due to lift
Span Efficiency Factor

51. DRAG POLAR
Total Drag = Profile Drag + Induced Drag { cd

52. EXAMPLE: U2 VS. F-15 U2 F-15 Cruise at 70,000 ft
Air density highly reduced
Flies at slow speeds, low q∞ → high angle of attack, high CL
U2 AR ~ 14.3 (WHY?)
Flies at high speed (and lower altitudes), so high q∞ → low angle of attack, low CL
F-15 AR ~ 3 (WHY?)

53. EXAMPLE: U2 SPYPLANE Cruise at 70,000 ft Out of USSR missile range
Air density, r∞, highly reduced
In steady-level flight, L = W
As r∞ reduced, CL must increase (angle of attack must increase)
AR ↑ CD ↓
U2 AR ~ 14.3
U2 stall speed at altitude is only ten knots (18 km/h) less than its maximum speed

54. EXAMPLE: F-15 EAGLE
Flies at high speed at low angle of attack → low CL
Induced drag < Profile Drag
Low AR, Low S

55. U2 CRASH DETAILS
NASA issued a very detailed press release noting that an aircraft had “gone missing” north of Turkey
I must tell you a secret. When I made my first report I deliberately did not say that the pilot was alive and well… and now just look how many silly things [the Americans] have said.”

56. NASA U2

57. MYASISHCHEV M-55 "MYSTIC" HIGH ALTITUDE RECONNAISANCE AIRCRAFT

58. AIRBUS A380 / BOEING 747 COMPARISON
Wingspan: 79.8 m
AR: 7.53
GTOW: 560 T
Wing Loading: GTOW/b2: 87.94
Wingspan: 68.5 m
AR: 7.98
GTOW: 440 T
Wing Loading: GTOW/b2: 93.77

59. AIRPORT ACCOMODATIONS
Airplanes must fit into 80 x 80 m box
Proposed changes to JFK

60. WINGLETS, FENCES, OR NO WINGLETS?
Quote from ‘Airborne with the Captain’ website
“Now, to go back on your question on why the Airbus A380 did not follow the Airbus A330/340 winglet design but rather more or less imitate the old design “wingtip fences” of the Airbus A320. Basically winglets help to reduce induced drag and improve performance (also increases aspect ratio slightly). However, the Airbus A380 has very large wing area due to the large wingspan that gives it a high aspect ratio. So, it need not have to worry about aspect ratio but needs only to tackle the induced drag problem. Therefore, it does not require the winglets, but merely “wingtip fences” similar to those of the Airbus A320.”
What do you think of this answer?
What are other trade-offs for winglets vs. no winglets?
Consider Boeing 777 does not have winglets

61. REALLY HIGH ASPECT RATIO
L/D ratios can be over 50!
Aspect ratio can be over 40
All out attempt to reduce induced drag
What we learned from the '24 regarding boundary layer control led us to believe that we could move the trip line back onto the control surfaces and still be "practical".

62. FINITE WING CHANGE IN LIFT SLOPE
Infinite Wing
In a wind tunnel, the easiest thing to measure is the geometric angle of attack
For infinite wings, there is no induced angle of attack
The angle you see = the angle the infinite wing ‘sees’
With finite wings, there is an induced angle of attack
The angle you see ≠ the angle the finite wing ‘sees’
ageom= aeff + ai = aeff
Finite Wing
ageom= aeff + ai

63. FINITE WING CHANGE IN LIFT SLOPE
Infinite Wing
Lift curve for a finite wing has a smaller slope than corresponding curve for an infinite wing with same airfoil cross-section
Figure (a) shows infinite wing, ai = 0, so plot is CL vs. ageom or aeff and slope is a0
Figure (b) shows finite wing, ai ≠ 0
Plot CL vs. what we see, ageom, (or what would be easy to measure in a wind tunnel), not what wing sees, aeff
Effect of finite wing is to reduce lift curve slope
Finite wing lift slope = a = dCL/da
At CL = 0, ai = 0, so aL=0 same for infinite or finite wings
Finite Wing

64. CHANGES IN LIFT SLOPE: SYMMETRIC WINGScl
Slope, a0 = 2p/rad ~ 0.11/deg
Infinite wing:
AR=∞
Infinite wing:
AR=10
Infinite wing:
AR=5
cl=1.0
ageom

65. CHANGES IN LIFT SLOPE: CAMBERED WINGScl
Slope, a0 = 2p/rad ~ 0.11/deg
Infinite wing:
AR=∞
Infinite wing:
AR=10
Infinite wing:
AR=5
cl=1.0
ageom
Zero-lift angle of attack independent of AR

66. SUMMARY: INFINITE VS. FINITE WINGS
Properties of a finite wing differ in two major respects from infinite wings:
Addition of induced drag
Lift curve for a finite wing has smaller slope than corresponding lift curve for infinite wing with same airfoil cross section

67. SUMMARY Induced drag is price you pay for generation of lift
CD,i proportional to CL2
Airplane on take-off or landing, induced drag major component
Significant at cruise (15-25% of total drag)
CD,i inversely proportional to AR
Desire high AR to reduce induced drag
Compromise between structures and aerodynamics
AR important tool as designer (more control than span efficiency, e)
For an elliptic lift distribution, chord must vary elliptically along span
Wing planform is elliptical
Elliptical lift distribution gives good approximation for arbitrary finite wing through use of span efficiency factor, e

68. NEXT WEEK: WHY SWEPT WINGS