1. Introduction to Research: Scientific Understanding of Behavior Introduction to Research: Scientific Understanding of Behavior January 10, 2006

2. What is Research?  Main Entry: 1re·search Pronunciation: ri-'s&rch, 'rE-" Function: noun Etymology: Middle French recerche, from recerchier to investigate thoroughly, from Old French, from re- + cerchier to search -- Date: 1 : careful or diligent search 2 : studious inquiry or examination; especially : investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws 3 : the collecting of information about a particular subject

3. What is Scientific Research?  “Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among such phenomena” (Kerlinger, 1986, p. 10).  So all “research” is scientific … right?

4. What is Pseudo-Scientific Research?  Magazines: Cosmo and Maxim Quizzes and “Studies”  Newspapers and Television Polls: Fox News political reports  Internet: Keyword cancer on Google yesterday came up with 306,000,000 hits! (Imagine sex!)

5. Why is Scientific Research Important?  Helps us decide what is what is valid and what is not  Provides us a means of addressing and answering important questions  Helps practitioners with treatment, therapy, and medication choices  Assists public policy decisions

6. Why is Scientific Research Important?  Influences judicial decisions (Study by Clark & Clark, 1947, influenced the landmark Brown vs. Board of Education case)  Determines whether or not programs (public and private) are successfully meeting their goals

7. The Scientific Approach vs. Intuition  Intuition: Unquestionably accepting what your own personal judgment or experience tells you about the world. Example: Beef is bad … since Oprah said not to eat it.  Scientists understand that numerous cognitive and motivational factors (that affect our perceptions) lead to erroneous conclusions.

8. The Scientific Approach vs. Intuition  Numerous cognitive biases exist when we focus on two events that stand out and occur together.  The scientific approach requires much more evidence before any conclusion can be drawn.

9. The Scientific Approach vs. Authority  People too often accept information from books, media, government figures, and friends as being true.  “Persuasion is achieved by the speaker’s personal character when the speech is so spoken as to make him credible. We believe good men (people) more fully and readily than others.” (Aristotle)

10. The Scientific Approach vs. Authority  The scientific approach rejects the notion that one can accept on faith the statements of any authority.  Once again, scientific evidence is needed!

11. Skepticism and Science  Scientists do recognize that intuition and authority are sources of ideas about behavior, but they do not blindly accept either without being skeptical.  How then, do scientists learn about the world?

12. The Scientific Method and the Empirical Approach  The fundamental characteristic of the scientific method is empiricism (knowledge based on observations).  Most importantly, the scientific method embodies a number of rules for collecting, evaluating, and reporting data (observations put into measurable form).  These rules will be discussed in greater detail throughout the course of this semester.

13. The Scientific Method and the Empirical Approach  Elements of Goodstein’s Evolved Theory of Science: 1. Observations accurately reported to others A. So that others can replicate the study A. So that others can replicate the study B. So that others can see that the data has not been fabricated. B. So that others can see that the data has not been fabricated.

14. The Scientific Method and the Empirical Approach 2. Search for discovery and verification of ideas: A. Scientists search for observations that will verify their ideas about the world. A. Scientists search for observations that will verify their ideas about the world. B. Scientists develop theories, argue that existing data supports their theories, and conduct research to further support their theories. B. Scientists develop theories, argue that existing data supports their theories, and conduct research to further support their theories.

15. The Scientific Method and the Empirical Approach 3. Open exchange and competition among ideas: A. Research flourishes when there is an open exchange of ideas. A. Research flourishes when there is an open exchange of ideas. B. Others should report findings not supporting an ideas. B. Others should report findings not supporting an ideas. C. Even good ideas are not supported by research. However, this leads to new and more innovative ideas. C. Even good ideas are not supported by research. However, this leads to new and more innovative ideas.

16. The Scientific Method and the Empirical Approach 4. Peer Review of Research: A. Ensures that only the best research is published. A. Ensures that only the best research is published. B. Ensures that research with major flaws is not integrated into the scientific community. B. Ensures that research with major flaws is not integrated into the scientific community. C. Allows others to build upon and advance research. C. Allows others to build upon and advance research.

17. Incorporating Intuition, Authority, and Skepticism  Acceptable use of beliefs or opinions from a scientific perspective: 1. They are presented as only opinions or beliefs and not as fact 2. They are scientifically testable 3. There is scientific evidence that supports the opinion or belief

18. Goals of Scientific Research 1.To Describe Behavior 2.To Predict Behavior 3.To Determine the Causes of Behavior 4.To Understand or Explain Behavior

19. Describing Behavior  Researchers must first make careful observations before they can accurately describe behavior  Examples of describing behavior: 1. Client can lift up to 10 pounds, repeatedly, for one hour. 2. Mr. Smith expresses distrust at the thought of being tested for HIV in a public health clinic.

20. Predicting Behavior  Once it has been observed (in a scientific manner) that two events are related to one another, predictions can be generated.  Examples of predicting behavior: 1. The more attractive interviewee will get the job. 2. Individuals who eat Big Macs on a daily basis will gain weight over the course of a year.

21. Determining the Causes of Behavior  Predicting behavior does not mean that a cause can be determined.  In order to determine how to change behavior, we must first determine the cause of the behavior.

22. Determining the Causes of Behavior Identification of the cause of behavior requires three types of evidence: Identification of the cause of behavior requires three types of evidence: 1. Temporal Precedence: Temporal order of events where the cause precedes the effect. 2. Covariation of the Cause and Effect: When the cause is present, the effect occurs, when the cause is not present, the effect does not occur. 3. Alternative Explanations: There should be no other plausible alternative explanation for the relationship.

23. Explanation of Behavior  Researchers seek to understand and explain why behavior occurs (Caregivers of people with stroke may become depressed due to the “burden of caregiving”).  Causes and explanations are closely related but as new causes are determined, new explanations are necessary.

24. Basic and Applied Research  Basic Research: 1. Answers fundamental questions about the nature of behavior 2. Studies are often designed to address theoretical issues such as cognition, emotion, social behavior, and learning 3. Does not focus on immediate or practical concerns as it seeks to gain knowledge that may be of some value at a later time

25. Basic and Applied Research  Applied Research: 1. Main focus is to address practical problems and to find potential solutions to such problems 2. A major area of applied research is called Program Evaluation where research is used to evaluate social reforms, government, the criminal justice system, industry, schools, and health care

26. Basic and Applied Research  Neither type of research is superior to the other  The progress of science depends on the synergy between the two  Both may cause the other to be modified  Both use the scientific method of research  Neither are “easy!”