1. 1 Personality Theory & Research: Gordon L. Flett Personality Theory & Research: An International Perspective Gordon L. Flett Prepared by Brenda Baird, University of Ottawa

2. 2 Chapter 9 Overview George Kelly’s Personal Construct TheoryGeorge Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory Kurt Lewin’s Cognitive and Field Theory of PersonalityKurt Lewin’s Cognitive and Field Theory of Personality Cognitively Based Personality DifferencesCognitively Based Personality Differences The Need for CognitionThe Need for Cognition AttributionsAttributions Cognitive RigidityCognitive Rigidity

3. 3 George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory Constructs are cognitive categories with personal meaning that guide interpretations of life eventsConstructs are cognitive categories with personal meaning that guide interpretations of life events Kelly viewed constructs as bipolar with implicit and explicit endsKelly viewed constructs as bipolar with implicit and explicit ends Kelly outlined three constructs that vary in levels of awareness in consciousness:Kelly outlined three constructs that vary in levels of awareness in consciousness: 1. Preverbal: tip-of-the tongue 2. Submerged: one or both poles are not conscious 3. Suspended: current events preclude memory of prior ones

4. 4 The Person as Scientist Kelly used the metaphor of scientist to describe each person’s motivation to make sense of life eventsKelly used the metaphor of scientist to describe each person’s motivation to make sense of life events Anxiety results when information cannot be integrated with our personal constructsAnxiety results when information cannot be integrated with our personal constructs Failure to update constructs produces hostilityFailure to update constructs produces hostility Constructive alternativism describes how two people can have different views of the same event or to a person's changing perception of the same event over timeConstructive alternativism describes how two people can have different views of the same event or to a person's changing perception of the same event over time George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

5. 5 Kelly’s Corollaries Kelly fundamental postulate states that our processes are psychologically directed by our anticipation of eventsKelly fundamental postulate states that our processes are psychologically directed by our anticipation of events Constructs provide a cognitive map for directing future behaviour based on our anticipations of outcomesConstructs provide a cognitive map for directing future behaviour based on our anticipations of outcomes George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

6. 6 Kelly’s Corollaries Kelly derived several principles from his fundamental postulate:Kelly derived several principles from his fundamental postulate: – Construction corollary – Range corollary – Individuality corollary – Experience corollary – Organization corollary – Modulation corollary – Dichotomy corollary – Fragmentation corollary – Choice corollary – Commonality corollary – Sociality corollary George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

7. 7 Personal Constructs of the Unabomber Kelly’s theory was used to help depict a construction system of the Unabomber based on analyses of the bomber’s published ManifestoKelly’s theory was used to help depict a construction system of the Unabomber based on analyses of the bomber’s published Manifesto George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

8. 8

9. 9 Empirical Research on the Nature of Personal Constructs An idiographic research approach is best for describing and understanding constructsAn idiographic research approach is best for describing and understanding constructs Mischel (1964) noted that a nomothetic approach would not enable prediction or promote an understanding of individual differences among peopleMischel (1964) noted that a nomothetic approach would not enable prediction or promote an understanding of individual differences among people George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

10. 10 Jack Adams-Webber Adams-Webber investigated Bieri’s (1955) notion of cognitive complexity which refers to the structure rather than the content of cognitionsAdams-Webber investigated Bieri’s (1955) notion of cognitive complexity which refers to the structure rather than the content of cognitions Cognitive complexity is also termed integrative complexity due to the distinction between differentiated and integrated dimensions of an issueCognitive complexity is also termed integrative complexity due to the distinction between differentiated and integrated dimensions of an issue Adams-Webber also supported Crockett’s (1965) familiarity hypothesisAdams-Webber also supported Crockett’s (1965) familiarity hypothesis George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

11. 11 Roles and Fixed Role Therapy Kelly defined a role as a person’s pattern of behaviour that stems from the views held by an another, associated personKelly defined a role as a person’s pattern of behaviour that stems from the views held by an another, associated person The goal of therapy is to improve and strengthen self constructsThe goal of therapy is to improve and strengthen self constructs Kelly’s fixed role therapy allows the client to see the world from another's view by adopting their constructsKelly’s fixed role therapy allows the client to see the world from another's view by adopting their constructs George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

12. 12 Roles and Fixed Role Therapy The actor–observer attribution bias refers to the finding that negative events are attributed to internal characteristics of others, but to external events for the selfThe actor–observer attribution bias refers to the finding that negative events are attributed to internal characteristics of others, but to external events for the self Karst and Trexler (1970) found that fixed role therapy led to greater improvements in anxiety compared to rational-emotive therapyKarst and Trexler (1970) found that fixed role therapy led to greater improvements in anxiety compared to rational-emotive therapy George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

13. 13 Roles and the Person-Situation Interaction Cattell (1963) suggested that life roles need to be included in the person-situation interactionCattell (1963) suggested that life roles need to be included in the person-situation interaction Cultures may differ in the nature, relevance, and influence of rolesCultures may differ in the nature, relevance, and influence of roles Research has found self- perceptions vary across social roles in middle aged females, and levels of perfectionism vary across life domains for working mothersResearch has found self- perceptions vary across social roles in middle aged females, and levels of perfectionism vary across life domains for working mothers George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

14. 14 The Role Construct Repertory Test and Repertory Grids The Rep test requires respondents to name 15 people in each of 15 categoriesThe Rep test requires respondents to name 15 people in each of 15 categories Respondents then identify several three- person sets and describe how one person differs from the other twoRespondents then identify several three- person sets and describe how one person differs from the other two These descriptions are analyzed for constructs that emerge as themes identified by Repertory GridsThese descriptions are analyzed for constructs that emerge as themes identified by Repertory Grids George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

15. 15 George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

16. 16 The Role Construct Repertory Test and Repertory Grids Rep tests come in alternative forms such as Crockett’s (1982) Role Category QuestionnaireRep tests come in alternative forms such as Crockett’s (1982) Role Category Questionnaire Rep Grids have been used in research, and also have practical application such as identifying constructs associated with psychopathologyRep Grids have been used in research, and also have practical application such as identifying constructs associated with psychopathology George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

17. 17 Kelly’s Contemporary Influence Kelly's’ work helped advance the cognitive perspective and has led to the to development of constructivist psychologyKelly's’ work helped advance the cognitive perspective and has led to the to development of constructivist psychology One issue that is debated is whether Kelly is a cognitive theorist or a humanistic theorist due to his emphasis on personal choice and meaning in lifeOne issue that is debated is whether Kelly is a cognitive theorist or a humanistic theorist due to his emphasis on personal choice and meaning in life George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

18. 18 Evaluation of Kelly Kelly promoted a focus on the whole personKelly promoted a focus on the whole person Kelly’s use of constructs helped to advance the cognitive revolutionKelly’s use of constructs helped to advance the cognitive revolution Critics note the focus on structure vs. content of personalityCritics note the focus on structure vs. content of personality Other criticisms include the dichotomous nature of constructsOther criticisms include the dichotomous nature of constructs George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

19. 19 Kurt Lewin’s Cognitive and Field Theory of Personality Lewin is noted for his Gestalt approach to personality with an emphasis on unity rather than constituent partsLewin is noted for his Gestalt approach to personality with an emphasis on unity rather than constituent parts Lewin distinguished between an environmental situation and a psychological situationLewin distinguished between an environmental situation and a psychological situation Lewin’s concept of life space refers to a person’s psychological field, composed of all possible internal and external events that can be topographically depictedLewin’s concept of life space refers to a person’s psychological field, composed of all possible internal and external events that can be topographically depicted

20. 20 Kurt Lewin’s Cognitive and Field Theory of Personality

21. 21 The life space has separate fields that bear a similarity to constructsThe life space has separate fields that bear a similarity to constructs The life space includes goals that are a function of one’s expectancy of attainment and incentive valueThe life space includes goals that are a function of one’s expectancy of attainment and incentive value Lewin emphasized that tensions shape behaviour, and produce an inner drive called forceLewin emphasized that tensions shape behaviour, and produce an inner drive called force Kurt Lewin’s Cognitive and Field Theory of Personality

22. 22 Lewin outlined six changes in personality structure that occur over time: 1.Differentiation 2.Complexity 3.Expansion 4.Rigidity 5.Realism 6.Integration Kurt Lewin’s Cognitive and Field Theory of Personality

23. 23 Cognitively Based Personality Differences Current research investigates personality differences in information processing and memoryCurrent research investigates personality differences in information processing and memory Some studies examine differences in the ability of extroverts vs. introverts to remember future (prospective memory) or past events (episodic memory)Some studies examine differences in the ability of extroverts vs. introverts to remember future (prospective memory) or past events (episodic memory) Episodic memory is revealed through recall of life events (autobiographical memories) that are more easily remembered if emotionally charged (flashbulb memories)Episodic memory is revealed through recall of life events (autobiographical memories) that are more easily remembered if emotionally charged (flashbulb memories)

24. 24 Field dependence versus Field Independence Herman Witkin identified a cognitive- perceptual individual difference variable while observing pilotsHerman Witkin identified a cognitive- perceptual individual difference variable while observing pilots Specifically, people either rely on global aspects in the environment (field dependent) or on specific details (field independent) to perceptually orient themselvesSpecifically, people either rely on global aspects in the environment (field dependent) or on specific details (field independent) to perceptually orient themselves Cognitively Based Personality Differences

25. 25 Field dependence versus Field Independence There are three tests to measure field dependence or independence:There are three tests to measure field dependence or independence: 1.The Rod and Frame test 2.The Embedded Figures Test 3.The Body Adjustment Test Witkin (1967) linked extroversion with field dependence and introversion with field in dependenceWitkin (1967) linked extroversion with field dependence and introversion with field in dependence Cognitively Based Personality Differences

26. 26 Field dependence versus Field Independence Research on information processing has promoted the use of two terms:Research on information processing has promoted the use of two terms: – Schemas: cognitive structures that contain knowledge of ourselves and others – Prototypes: categorical arrangement of of information Cantor and Michael (1977) suggested that personality traits act as cognitive prototypesCantor and Michael (1977) suggested that personality traits act as cognitive prototypes Cognitively Based Personality Differences

27. 27 The Need for Cognition Need for cognition (NFC) is described as the need to engage in thinking, and is assessed using the Need for Cognition Scale (NCS; Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984)Need for cognition (NFC) is described as the need to engage in thinking, and is assessed using the Need for Cognition Scale (NCS; Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984) Persons high in NFC are easily swayed by persuasive messages and pertinent informationPersons high in NFC are easily swayed by persuasive messages and pertinent information Persons high in NFC prefer simple tasks and tend to have high levels of intelligence, curiosity, self-esteem, openness, conscientiousness, and low levels of anxietyPersons high in NFC prefer simple tasks and tend to have high levels of intelligence, curiosity, self-esteem, openness, conscientiousness, and low levels of anxiety

28. 28 Attributions Attributional Style An attribution usually refers to the causal explanation one makes for an unexpected, negative eventAn attribution usually refers to the causal explanation one makes for an unexpected, negative event Attribution style, or explanatory style, refers to individual differences in the ways that people explain causalityAttribution style, or explanatory style, refers to individual differences in the ways that people explain causality The locus, or source of causality can vary based on internal–external, global–specific, and stable–unstable factorsThe locus, or source of causality can vary based on internal–external, global–specific, and stable–unstable factors

29. 29 Attributional Style Abramson, Seligman, and Teasdale (1978) formulated their hopelessness model of depression based on one’s diathesis, or vulnerability, to seek internal causes for negative events and external causes for positive eventsAbramson, Seligman, and Teasdale (1978) formulated their hopelessness model of depression based on one’s diathesis, or vulnerability, to seek internal causes for negative events and external causes for positive events Abramson et al. (1988) described hopelessness as a condition of depressive predictive certainty for the occurrence of negative eventsAbramson et al. (1988) described hopelessness as a condition of depressive predictive certainty for the occurrence of negative events Attributions

30. 30 Attributions

31. 31 Cognitive Rigidity Cognitive rigidity, in contrast to cognitive flexibility, refers to one’s unwillingness to change thoughts or behavioursCognitive rigidity, in contrast to cognitive flexibility, refers to one’s unwillingness to change thoughts or behaviours Martin, Anderson, and Thweatt (1998) suggested that cognitive flexibility involves three elements:Martin, Anderson, and Thweatt (1998) suggested that cognitive flexibility involves three elements: 1.Awareness of alternative options 2.Willingness to adapt 3.Sense of self-confidence

32. 32 Cognitive Rigidity Research investigating cognitive rigidity has shown a negative relation between perceptions of situational threat and levels of flexibilityResearch investigating cognitive rigidity has shown a negative relation between perceptions of situational threat and levels of flexibility Rigidity also shows a negative relation with perceptions of self-control, and a positive relation with perfectionismRigidity also shows a negative relation with perceptions of self-control, and a positive relation with perfectionism Cognitive rigidity appears to be a stable individual variable based on test-retest reliability estimatesCognitive rigidity appears to be a stable individual variable based on test-retest reliability estimates

33. 33 Cognitive Rigidity Schultz and Searleman (2002) outline seven findings based on their quantitative review of cognitive rigidity: 1.Age and rigidity show a curvilinear relation 2.Rigidity and authoritarianism are positively related 3.Rigidity and intelligence are negatively related 4.Rigidity and mental retardation have not been empirically linked 5.Cognitive rigidity is statistically higher in men compared to women 6.Symptoms of OCD are linked to rigidity 7.People with schizophrenia show higher levels of rigidity compared to controls

34. 34 Copyright Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright (the Canadian copyright licensing agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these files or programs or from the use of the information contained herein.