1. Memory Psychology: A Concise Introduction 2nd Edition Richard Griggs
Chapter 5
Prepared by J. W. Taylor V

2. Three-Stage Model of Memory Encoding Information into Memory
The Journey…
Three-Stage Model of Memory
Encoding Information into Memory
Retrieving Information from Memory

3. Three-Stage Model of Memory
Sensory Memory
Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory

4. The Three-Stage Model
Has guided research in memory since the late 1960s
Views memory as composed of three relatively distinct stages
Sensory
Short-Term
Long-Term

5. The Three-Stage Model

6. Sensory Memory
Consists of a set of five registers (temporary storage places, one from each sense) for incoming sensory information from the physical environment until we attend to it, interpret it, and it proceeds to the next stage of memory (short-term memory)

7. Iconic Memory Is an exact copy of visual information
Less than a second in duration
Very large capacity
Consider the example of a cartoon movie, which is nothing more than a series of still drawings flashed in rapid succession
Iconic memory allows us to perceive motion in the drawings

8. Testing Iconic Memory
The temporal integration procedure involves giving two random meaningless dot patterns sequentially at the same visual location with a brief time delay between the two presentations
When the two patterns are integrated, a meaningful pattern is produced

9. An Example of the Temporal Integration Procedure

10. Testing Iconic Memory
For a meaningful pattern to be perceived, the two patterns must be integrated somewhere in the memory system
However, if the time delay between the two presentations is greater than one second, no meaningful pattern can be perceived because the image from the first pattern has faded from iconic memory

11. Testing Iconic Memory
Sperling’s full- and partial-report procedures present participants with a different 3 x 3 matrix of unrelated consonants (a total of 9) for 50 ms across numerous experimental trials
Here is an example:
L Z Q
R B P
S K N

12. Testing Iconic Memory
In the full-report procedure participants had to report the entire matrix
Participants said they sensed the entire matrix but that it had faded from memory before they could report all 9 letters

13. Testing Iconic Memory
In the partial-report procedure, the participants had to report only one row of the matrix, a row indicated by an auditory cue on each trial
When the auditory cue was given immediately after the brief presentation of the letter matrix, participants recalled the indicated row 100% of the time
When there was a one second delay between presentation of the matrix and the auditory cue, participants’ recall of the cued row worsened

14. Short-Term Memory
Is the memory stage in which the recognized informa-tion from sensory memory enters consciousness
It is where you are doing your present conscious cognitive processing
Serves as a place to rehearse information so it can be transferred to long-term memory and as a place to bring information from long-term memory when asked to recall it
Must concentrate on information in short-term memory or it will be lost in 30 seconds

15. Capacity of Short-Term Memory
The memory span task tests for the capacity of short-term memory by giving a series of items one at a time
The person has to remember the items in the order in which they were presented
Memory span is the average number of items you can remember across a series of memory span trials
Humans have a memory span of 7+/- 2 (5 to 9) chunks of information
A chunk is a meaningful unit of information
Experts in a given domain tend to have larger chunks for information in their area of expertise

16. Duration of Short-Term Memory
Measured using the distractor task, in which people are given a small amount of information (e.g., three unrelated consonants such as CWZ)
Then the participant is immediately distracted from concentrating on the information for a brief time period (by counting backwards aloud by 3’s), and then asked to recall the information
To keep information in short-term memory, we use maintenance rehearsal (i.e., repeating information in short-term memory to keep in from fading from short-term memory)

17. Results for the Short-Term Memory Distractor Task

18. Long-Term Memory
Allows storage of information for a long period of time (perhaps permanently) and its capacity is essentially unlimited

19. Types of Long-Term Memory
Explicit memory (also called declarative memory) is long-term memory for factual knowledge and personal experiences and requires conscious recall
Two types of explicit memories:
Semantic memories are memories for factual knowledge that is true of everyone (e.g., the current President of the United States)
Episodic memories are memories for personal life experiences (e.g., your senior prom night)

20. Types of Long-Term Memory
Implicit memory (also called non-declarative memory) is long-term memory that influences our behavior, but does not require conscious awareness or declarative statements (e.g., for most adults, driving a car; walking)
Some implicit memories are procedural memories because they have a physical procedural aspect to them
For a tennis expert, such as Serena Williams, the movements to play the game are implicit, procedural memories, whereas for the average person, such movements require conscious recall, and are more semantic memories
Other implicit memories have become automatic responses to certain stimuli (e.g., feeling tense when police car lights are flashing behind us)

21. Types of Long-Term Memory

22. Amnesia, the Loss of Long-Term Memories
Amnesics are people with severe memory deficits following brain surgery or injury
H. M. had his hippocampus and surrounding temporal lobe area removed at age 27 (to reduce epileptic seizures)
Before the operation, both his short- and long-term memories were normal
After the operation, he didn’t seem to be able to store any new information in long-term memory
H.M. suffered from anterograde amnesia – the inability to form long-term memories for events following brain surgery or trauma
By contrast, retrograde amnesia is the inability to remember events before, especially just before, the surgery or trauma

23. Infantile Amnesia
The cerebellum seems to be important for formation of implicit memories, whereas the hippocampus seems to be important for formation of explicit memories
Because the hippocampus does not fully develop until about the age of 3, this explains why we cannot remember as adults events that occurred prior to this age (i.e., infantile/ child amnesia)

24. Evidence for the Short-Term vs. Long-Term Distinction
H. M.’s short-term memory did not suffer any substantial damage after the operation
The free recall task is an experimental procedure in which participants are given a list of words one at a time, then asked to recall them in any order they wish
Compared with the middle of such lists, the recall of the items at the start of the list is superior (the primacy effect)
Compared with the middle of such lists, the recall of the items at the end of the list is superior (the recency effect)

25. Serial Position Effects for the Free Recall Task

26. Evidence for the Short-Term vs. Long-Term Distinction
The recency effect is caused by recall from short-term memory, whereas the primacy effect is the result of superior recall from long-term memory of the first few words in the list
The first few words enter an empty long-term memory and get proportionately more attention than the words in the middle of the list and can thus be transferred into long-term memory
The last few words are still in short-term memory at the time of recall
If recall is delayed by having participants count rapidly backward by 3’s for 30 seconds, the recency effect is eliminated, but the primacy effect remains
To eliminate the primacy effect, simply rehearse each of the items on the list equally

27. Encoding Information into Memory
How We Encode Information
How to Improve Encoding

28. Memory System Processes
Encoding The process of transferring information from one memory
stage to the next
Storage
The process of maintaining information in a particular
stage
Retrieval
The process of bringing stored information from long-term
memory to the conscious level in short-term memory

29. How We Encode Information
Automatic processing is processing that occurs subconsciously and does not require attention
Effortful processing is processing that occurs consciously and requires attention
For a particular type of processing, much practice is needed

30. Levels-of-Processing Theory
Describes what types of encoding lead to better retrieval
Three levels of processing
Physical: How information appears
Acoustic: How the information sounds
Semantic: What the information means
Long-term memory is best for information encoded semantically, next best for information encoded acoustically, and worst of information encoded physically

31. Elaborative Rehearsal
Rehearsing information by relating new information to information already in long-term memory
Contrasts with maintenance rehearsal (i.e., the repetitive cycling of information in short-term memory)
Elaborative rehearsal provides more retrieval cues to facilitate retrieval
A good way to elaborate on new material is to relate the material to yourself
The self-reference effect says it is easier to remember information that you have related to yourself because such connections provide more retrieval cues and lend more meaning to the new information

32. Environmental Effects on Encoding
Encoding specificity principle proposed that the cues present during encoding serve as the best cues for retrieval
This is why the various concepts and examples that you relate to a new concept during elaborative rehearsal help you remember the concept
State-dependent memory is memory that depends upon the relationship of one’s physiological state at the time of encoding and at the time of retrieval

33. Environmental Effects on Encoding
Mood-dependent memory effects attest to the fact that memory is better when a person’s mood is the same during encoding and retrieval
For example, if you are happy during encoding information, it is easier to retrieve that information if you are happy at the time of retrieval
Mood-congruence effect is the fact that memory is better for experiences that are congruent with a person’s current mood
For example, when we are sad it is easier to retrieve negative events in our lives

34. How to Improve Encoding
Mnemonics are memory aids that require elaborative rehearsal
In the method of loci, the sequential pieces of information to be remembered are first associated with sequential locations in a very familiar room or location
When retrieving the information, you merely mentally go around the room (or location) and retrieve the item stored at each sequential location; uses elaborative mental imagery
In the peg-word system, you visually associate the items to be remembered in a jingle that you first memorize

35. The Peg-Word Method Term Keyword Meaning Mental Picture Medulla Medal
Controls heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure
Imagine the winner of a race (i.e., heart pounding and breathing heavily), while a medal is hung round the winner’s neck.
Pituitary glands
Pit
Regulates growth
Imagine a young child down in a pit. The child grows and grows until he’s finally big enough to climb out!

36. The Peg-Word Method Para-chute Calms the body
Term
Keyword
Meaning
Mental Picture
Para-sympa-thetic nervous system
Para-chute
Calms the body
Imagine the peace and calming effect of watching a parachute drift slowly downward.
Sympa-thetic nervous system
Sym-phony
Excites the body
Imagine a symphony playing loudly in the room next door! The music excites you and you can’t sit still.

37. The Peg-Word Method Retickle Attention
Term
Keyword
Meaning
Mental Picture
Reticular formation
Retickle
Attention
Imagine tickling someone to get her attention. Then, she loses interest so you have to retickle her!
Cere-bellum
Cereal bell
Facilitates movement
Imagine hearing the cereal bell. That’s the signal to move to the table and begin spooning cereal.

38. Other Tips for Improving Encoding
The spacing effect (or distributed study effect) contends that your memory will improve if you study for an exam over an extended time interval rather than just a few days before the exam
Overlearning is studying material past the point of initial learning, and has been demonstrated to aid in retrieval of that information

39. Retrieving Information from Memory
How to Measure Retrieval
Why We Forget
The Reconstructive Nature of Retrieval

40. How to Measure Retrieval
Recall is a measure of retrieval that requires the reproduction of the information with essentially no retrieval cues
Recognition is a measure of retrieval that only requires the identification of the information in the presence of retrieval cues
Relearning, also called the savings method, is a measure of the amount of time saved when learning the information for a second time

41. An Early Study
Ebbinhaus conducted the first experimental studies on human memory more than 100 years ago using the relearning method.
He would study a list of nonsense syllables until he could correctly recite the complete list without any hesitations. He then put the list aside and waited some period of time and then relearned the list to the same criterion.
To get a measure of learning, he computed a savings score – the reduction in the number of trials it took him to reach criterion.
Result? The “forgetting curve” reveals that most forgetting occurs in the first two days after learning material.

42. Forgetting Curve for Long-Term Memory

43. Why We Forget
Encoding failure theory says that sometimes forgetting is not really forgetting, but rather that the information never entered long-term memory in the first place
Storage decay theory suggests that forgetting occurs because of a problem in the storage of the information
The biological trace of the memory gradually decays over time and the periodic usage of the information will help to maintain it in storage

44. An Example of Encoding Failure

45. Why We Forget
Cue-dependent theory says we forget because the cues necessary for retrieval are not available
The information is in memory, but we cannot access it
This theory is analogous to knowing a book is in the library but you cannot access it because the library lacks call numbers
Interference theory proposes that other similar information interferes and makes the forgotten information inaccessible

46. Types of Interference
Proactive interference occurs when information you already know makes it hard to retrieve newly learned information
Retroactive interference occurs when information you just learned makes it hard to retrieve old information

47. Types of Interference

48. Types of Interference
Think about changing phone numbers after having a certain number for many years. When asked for your new phone number, remembering the old one interferes with retrieving the new one.
This is proactive interference
Now think about being at a party with many people you don’t know. You meet someone whom you want to talk to later, but after meeting her, you are introduced to many more people. Now, you cannot remember her name.
This is retroactive interference

49. The Reconstructive Nature of Retrieval
When reading a newspaper article, for instance, we usually code the gist or main theme of the story, along with some of the some of the story’s highlights
Then, when we retrieve the information from our memory, we re-construct a memory of the story using the theme and highlights
Retrieval re-construction is guided by schemas – organized frameworks of knowledge about people, objects, and events that tell us what normally happens in a given situation
They allow us to encode and retrieve information more efficiently

50. The Reconstructive Nature of Retrieval
Schemas, however, can lead us to “misremember” information so that it is more consistent with our schemas
Frederick Bartlett (1932) had people read unusual stories and subsequently recall details from the stories
When the participants recalled the stories, they made them more consist with their schemas about the world

51. Source Misattribution
Occurs when we do not remember the true source of a memory and attribute the memory to the wrong source
Source misattribution results in false memories, which are inaccurate memories that feel as real as accurate memories.
False memories can also occur because of the misinformation effect, which occurs when a memory is distorted by subsequent exposure to misleading information

52. A Study of False Memories
Loftus and Palmer (1974) showed people film of a traffic accident and later tested their memory for the accident
Some people were asked “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” and others were asked “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”
Participants asked the first question estimated a higher speed at impact and reported seeing broken glass when in fact there was none

53. Memory and Testimony
False memories suggest that eyewitness testimony is subject to error and manipulated by misleading information
Likewise, false memories suggest that recovered memories are not necessarily accurate