1. Issues and Ethics of Research

2. How to Properly Conduct Research
In order for research to be effective and relevant to society two aspects must be considered. The first is the proper conduct of research and how the methods of research have been carried out. The second is the appropriateness of the research process or the ethics of the study.

3. Conducting Research
The two most important issues when conducting research are reliability and validity.
Reliability occurs when the research produces the same results each time they are applied to the same issue.
Essentially, the research produces consistent results.

4. The Draw a Pig personality test we did on the first day is NOT reliable because how a subject draws a pig will change and the results will not be consistent.

5. Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment is reliable because Bandura consistently found that children who saw the aggressive model copied the aggressive behaviour.

6. Validity is when the research measures what it is supposed to measure.
Essentially, the researcher has made sure that there are no extra variables that could be influencing what is being researched.

7. A researcher wants to determine the effects of smoking on lung health in an industrial city, so he has participants complete a survey on their lung health and smoking habits. He neglects to ask if participants live near the large coal power plant.
His study is NOT VALID because the pollution from the plant could cause lung problems.

8. A psychologist wants to study helping behaviour so she sets up a field experiment where an actor fakes distress on a subway train. To ensure that racism is not being tested, she runs the experiment twice, once with a white actor and once with a black actor.
Her experiment is VALID because she has accounted for an extra variable.

9. Certain types of research are more reliable and valid than others
Certain types of research are more reliable and valid than others. As a result, a theory will often be tested using different research methods.

10. Cause and Effect
Researchers are often looking for causal relationships, meaning they are looking for cause and effect.
For instance, we can say that smoking CAUSES lung cancer for most cases.
However, causal relationships are difficult to find, so often researchers can only find correlations.

11. Correlation is the degree to which two things are related.
For example, studying for an exam often results in higher grades on an exam. This is a correlation and not a causal relationship as there are many other variables that effect exam performance.
For example, there is a high correlation between mental illness and substance abuse.

12. How do we make our research better?
There are a number of techniques researchers use to improve the reliability and validity of their research.
Sample size: It is impossible and impractical to test an entire population, so a sample of the population is chosen to take part in the study. The sample size has to be large enough to represent the population.
Representative Sample: The sample must reflect most of the society being studied; therefore, it must include various ethnicities, races, and gender.
If the sample is similar to the society being studied, the results become generalizable, meaning we can apply the results to most of the population.

13. A researcher wants to know what types of technology Canadians use the most, but she only surveys 15 white women, aged 55-70, in Nova Scotia.
This study has a poor representative sample size and is not generalizable.

14. A psychologist wants to study whether or not people will follow orders from an authority figure, even if it means hurting another person.
At first he only tests white middle aged males, however he repeats his experiment with different groups in different parts of the world.
His experiment has a good representative sample size and is generalizable.

15. Operational definitions: The researcher must define what is being studied (variables). The variables must be defined in terms of specific, observable behaviour that can be measured with precision.

16. A researcher studies students’ attitudes toward school by observing one class and noting when the students were rude to the teacher.
This research has poor operational definitions because we do not know what is causing the rude comments. Likewise, what is the definition of rude?

17. In the Bandura Bobo doll study the operational definitions were whether or not the children engaged in physically aggressive behaviour, similar to the model’s behaviour, after observing the model.
Here is a specific, observable, behaviour that can be measured with precision.

18. Experimental and control groups: To improve validity we must run the experiment twice with two different samples. The samples must be similar in every important way except for whether or not the variable being tested is manipulated or not. The group that goes through the experiment with the manipulated variable is the experimental group. The group that receives no treatment is the control group.

19. In Bandura’s Bobo doll study, one group watched a model aggressively play with a bobo doll. This was the experimental group. Another group watched a model play with the bobo doll in a non aggressive manner. This was the control group.

20. Bias
Bias is when the researchers or participants intentionally or unintentionally influence the research in order to have a more favourable outcome.
For example, a teacher’s job performance rating depends on how her students do on an test. She cannot help the students while they are writing the test, but when a student asks for help she unknowingly gestures to the right answer.
For example, you are filling out a self/peer evaluation worth 10% of your overall mark. Even though other group members did more work, you rate yourself highly because you want a good mark.

21. To combat bias in research, researchers are often “blind.”
Blind experimenters: As much as possible the person gathering the data should be unaware of the purpose of the research.

22. A researcher wants to test the effectiveness of a new anti-anxiety drug. To reduce any bias, he has two groups. One groups gets the drug and the other gets a placebo. The participants and the nurses giving out the drug do not know who does or doesn’t get the drug. The researcher hires an assistant to assess whether or not anxiety is being reduced.

23. Statistical Significance: After the results have been found, researchers must do the necessary math to determine if the results occurred by chance.

24. Ethics in Psychology
Ethics are rules and guidelines psychologists must follow in order to ensure the accuracy of their research and the physical and mental safety of their subjects.
There are many issues around the appropriateness of research, however; there are five key ethical concerns to be addressed.

25. Confidentiality
Confidentiality is the right of privacy for subject concerning their participation in research.
All steps must be taken to assure that subjects’ participation is confidential.
If any possibility exists that someone other than the researcher may have access to the data, the subjects must be informed of this possibility before they consent to participating. This includes the release of footage or interviews to the public.

26. Right to Withdraw
All participants have the right to leave a study, NO QUESTIONS ASKED, if they choose to, even if they are being paid to participate.

27. Deception
Psychologists should avoid lying to participants at all times as it violates informed consent.
Deception is to be avoided because it can cause mental stress or physical harm to participants.

28. Informed Consent
Potential subjects must understand exactly what is expected of them during the course of the research and that the researcher protects participants from physical and psychological discomfort, harm, and danger.
However, there are studies where informed consent does not occur because it would create bias in the study. Eg: naturalistic observations, field experiments, participant observations.

29. As well, there are circumstances where the subject cannot supply informed consent because of age or ability. In that case, the researcher must get consent from the guardians of the participants.
Eg: In the Bandura study, the parents provided consent.

30. Debriefing
Participants must be given full information about all aspects of the study after they have participated in it, in order to assure that the participants leave with a full understanding of the research’s purpose and receive full disclosure about how the research will be used.

31. Bias
Researchers must avoid subtle biases that influence results, such as gender, ethnicity, race, and culture.

32. Animal Research
Animals are often used in research to study conditions that would be too dangerous to subject a human to.
The ethical issues is whether or not it is right to subject an animal to operations, drugs, treatments, or experiments to suit a human purpose.
Animal research is allowed, but the researchers must try to avoid causing unnecessary harm or discomfort to the animal.

33. Animal Rights are still an issue…