1. Methods in Studying Psychology

2. Conducting Psychological Research Psychology is an experimental science and uses evidence to support is theories and principles Most psychologists follow a general procedure when conducting research Form a research question Form a hypothesis Test the hypothesis Analyze the results of the test Draw a conclusion

3. Forming a Research Question The best research questions focus on behavior, but many come from psychological theory Some come from folklore or traditional thought Behavior question – what do male lions do to assert their dominance? Psychological theory question – what effect does watching violence on TV have on viewers? Traditional thought question – Do opposites attract?

4. Form a Hypothesis This is an educated guess that can be tested for accuracy by conducting research Some psychologists form “if-then” hypotheses –If most consumers like the color blue, then they will be more likely to buy products with blue packaging Any existing information should be used when making the hypothesis

5. Testing the Hypothesis Psychologists need to prove that their hypotheses are correct (or incorrect) through scientific tests They usually will perform experiments and collect all relevant data The experiments need to be designed so they can be repeated by others

6. Analyzing the Results During this stage, psychologists ask what their findings mean Most experiments produce a lot of data, so this step can be very complex and take a lot of time Psychologists try to find patterns and relationships in the data They have to determine which data support the hypothesis and which data do not

7. Drawing Conclusions Psychologists form conclusions by seeing if their observations support their hypotheses They need to keep an open mind and be willing to adjust or modify their hypotheses depending on their findings Sometimes a different experiment is needed to prove that a hypothesis is correct

8. Replication People need to be able to reproduce an experiment and get the same results to prove that the experiment and its conclusion are correct If an experiment is replicated but it produces different results, then the findings of the first study are questioned This requires even more experimenting

9. Further Questions Findings from experiments often produce new questions and the need for new experiments The scientific process starts over for each new question

10. Surveys

11. The Survey Method Psychologists use surveys to gather information by asking people a series of question about a particular subject This can be done through an oral interview or with a written questionnaire Then they compile the data and analyze it to draw conclusions

12. Problems with Surveys Some respondents lie They may be afraid their responses will not remain confidential Some people try to please the interviewers by giving answers they think will help the experiment Some may not want the interviewers to know unflattering information about them

13. Populations and Samples You want to make sure you give a survey to the target population –The target population is the whole group you intend to study or describe You do not want to give a survey about voting habits to people under the age of 18 – they can’t vote! Sometimes your target population may be really large, so you can give a survey to a sample –A sample is only a part of the target population

14. How to Select a Sample The sample should be an accurate representation of the target population Random Sample – individuals are elected by chance from the target population; everyone has an equal chance of being chosen Stratified Sample - individuals from subgroups within the target population are represented proportionally Example: US voting population by gender – Males: 54% Females 46% Stratified sample population – 1000 people, 540 males and 460 females

15. Generalizing Survey Results Sometimes psychologists cannot get a random or stratified sample, so they must be cautious about generalizing their findings to any group other than their specific sample If you conduct a survey about all-time greatest songs, but you only give the survey to white females over 50, then the results do not represent many other groups in the total population

16. Volunteer Bias When conducting a survey, you cannot force people to participate The people who are willing to volunteer for a survey have a different outlook from those who refuse to participate – they have volunteer bias –Bias – a predisposition to a certain point of view –Volunteers for surveys tend to be more open about personal subjects and may not represent the total population

17. Methods of Observation

18. Testing Psychologists use psychological tests to learn more about human behavior Intelligence tests measure learning ability Personality tests measure people’s character traits and development They can also be used to diagnose mental illnesses Psychologists use psychological tests to learn more about human behavior Intelligence tests measure learning ability Personality tests measure people’s character traits and development They can also be used to diagnose mental illnesses

19. Case Studies A case study is an in- depth investigation of an individual or small group Researchers may interview them as well as family, friends, and peers to find out more about their backgrounds and histories Some of the findings from case studies can be applied to the larger population while others focus on rare circumstances or events Psychologists have to be careful about making generalizations from case studies – Why?

20. Longitudinal Studies Take place over a long period so psychologists can see how people develop and change over a long period of time Observations are conducted a set intervals (once a year, once every six months) They are very time- consuming, expensive, and risky – Why? Take place over a long period so psychologists can see how people develop and change over a long period of time Observations are conducted a set intervals (once a year, once every six months) They are very time- consuming, expensive, and risky – Why?

21. Cross-sectional Studies These studies avoid some of the problems seen in longitudinal studies Instead of following a set of individuals over a long time, psychologists select a sample that includes people from different age groups This method is not as accurate as a longitudinal study – Why?

22. Naturalistic Observation Method Also called field observation Psychologists collect data by observing people or animals in their natural habitats or surroundings They do not interfere with the people they are observing – they just watch and record data They may go to a restaurant to observe the eating habits of slender people and heavy people Also called field observation Psychologists collect data by observing people or animals in their natural habitats or surroundings They do not interfere with the people they are observing – they just watch and record data They may go to a restaurant to observe the eating habits of slender people and heavy people

23. Laboratory Observation Method Psychologists use this method when they cannot conduct their study in a natural setting They use laboratory observations so they can control aspects of the environment, such as noise, lighting, or distractions Their findings, however, cannot be replicated in the natural world

24. Analyzing Observations Many psychologists look for correlations in the data Correlation – a measure of how closely one thing is related to another –Ex: there is a strong correlation between good lung capacity and regular exercise Positive Correlation – as one thing goes up, so does another –Ex: achievement and annual salaries Negative Correlation – as one thing goes up, the other goes down –Ex: grades and discipline problems Correlations just describe relationships, but do not provide information about their cause or effect Many psychologists look for correlations in the data Correlation – a measure of how closely one thing is related to another –Ex: there is a strong correlation between good lung capacity and regular exercise Positive Correlation – as one thing goes up, so does another –Ex: achievement and annual salaries Negative Correlation – as one thing goes up, the other goes down –Ex: grades and discipline problems Correlations just describe relationships, but do not provide information about their cause or effect

25. Psychology Experiments

26. Variables In an experiment, researchers give participants treatments (changing room temperature, light levels, or giving them a new drug), and observe them to see how the treatment influences their behavior Variables – factors that can vary or change –Independent variable – researchers can change this factor to determine its effect –Dependent variable – changes to this factor depend on the independent variable Identify the independent and dependent variable in the following experiment : Researchers conduct a study to find a correlation between amount of sleep and levels of irritability

27. Groups Experimental Group – its members receive the treatment Control Group – its members do not receive treatment All environmental conditions, except for the treatment, are the same for both groups Using a control group allows psychologists to conclude that the treatment, not some other factor, caused specific behaviors to occur Used often when testing new medications

28. The Placebo Effect Placebo – a substance or treatment that has no effect other than a person’s belief in it Ex: a person with a headache is given a tablet that appears to be a pain reliever but has no medicinal value The person might begin to feel better, even though the tablet has no medicine, because he thinks it contained medicine

29. Blind Studies Blind studies are conducted to help prevent bias or the placebo effect from interfering with the experiments Single-blind study: participants do not know if they are in the experimental group or the control group Double-blind study: the participants and the experimenters do not know who is in the experimental group or the control group Required by the FDA for all new drugs

30. Ethics and Psychological Experiments

31. Ethics Ethics are standards for proper and responsible behavior Psychologists have to follow specific ethical guidelines that prevent them from conducting experiments that could harm participants One main goal of psychology is to lessen human suffering, not to help it occur

32. Research with People Studies must be designed so they do not cause harm to humans Psychologists can alter their study to collect information about more controversial topics by changing its focus

33. 3 Big Rules Confidentiality – the records of participants and clients are kept private People are more likely to provide true information if they know it will remain confidential Informed consent – people must agree to participate in a study after they have been given a general overview of the experiment and then given a choice of whether to participate Deception – psychologists may only use deception under certain circumstances When they believe the benefits of the research outweigh its potential harm When they believe individuals would agree to participate if they had understood the benefits of the research When participants receive an explanation of the experiment after its conclusion

34. Animal Research Psychologists sometimes perform research that is harmful to animals, often when the research cannot be conducted on humans for ethical reasons They only use animals in research when there is no alternative and the benefits of the research outweigh the harm This is a very controversial subject in psychology today

35. Ethics and Data Psychologists must follow strict rules that dictate how to produce, store, and interpret data They must be as objective as possible in every aspect of research and they must be willing to present all data and findings honestly