1. Mapping Science Education Policy in Developing Countries Keith M Lewin

2. 2 Policy and Planning Issues - Part 1 Two Approaches to Policy Formation The Policy Context Patterns of Provision Valued Aims and Outcomes Key Policy and Planning Questions

3. 3 Science and Technology Policy Technology Transfer Technology Adaptation Alternative Technologies Science/Technology Generation Tracking Decisions S and T Knowledge Skills and Values Assessment and Certification Learning and Teaching Methods Curriculum Aims and Outcomes Science Education Policy

4. 4 Curriculum Aims and Outcomes Tracking Decisions S and T Knowledge Skills and Values Assessment and Certification Learning and Teaching Methods Felt Needs Scientific literacy Health and Nutrition Awareness Equity (poverty,gender) Survival Skills Environmental Sustainability Employment related skills Civic Participation Individual and Collective Empowerment Scientific numeracy Rural Marginalisation

5. 5 Key Variables Enrolment rates at secondary and above, Disparities in enrolment rates between groups (rich/poor; male/female; urban/rural etc.), The proportions who specialise in science General Policy Context

6. 6 Financial constraints on investment in science education Supply and demand in education and the labour market. Patterns of provision Valued aims and outcomes for different groups General Policy Context (cont..)

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12. 12 Issues from Patterns of Provision Early or late specialisation? Separate subject science or integrated science? Tracking into different types of specialised school? National core and elective curricula?

13. 13 Issues from Patterns of Provision Time allocations for science learning? Nature and extent of practical work? Extent of technological or academic orientation? Qualification and training levels of science teachers?

14. 14 Qualified Scientists and Engineers Students entering middle level jobs related to S + T General population - needs for scientific literacy and numeracy Special needs of the marginalised A minority of those in school. Specialised or multi-level curricula? Higher cognitive demand? A majority of those who qualify. More application and technologised science? How selected? Basic science knowledge and thinking skills? Science linked to application? Living skill science? Health and nutrition? Special provision? Different aims and outcomes? Affirmative programmes or mainstreaming? Valued Aims and Outcomes Learning needs differ. Consider different groups.

15. 15 Some Questions (1) Science Education Policy Questions 1. Is there a national science and technology development strategy and if so what does it imply for science education policy? 2. What felt needs are unmet and which should be prioritised in science education development?

16. 16 Some Questions (1) (cont.) General Planning Questions 3. What are the patterns of supply and demand, and in participation? 4. What do they indicate about who should learn how much science to what level? 5. Which goals and outcomes should be prioritised for which groups?

17. 17 Cost and Effectiveness Issues Learning and Teaching Materials Practical Science, Laboratories and Equipment Selection and Assessment Science Teacher Education and Deployment Policy and Planning Issues - Part 2

18. 18 Learning and Teaching Materials

19. 19 Practical work is time consuming and needs careful organising. It costs should be justified by learning outcomes. What unique outcomes does practical work contribute to? Are there other ways of achieving the same outcomes? Practical Science, Laboratories and Equipment

20. 20 Laboratory building costs can be very high. What is the minimum essential provision to achieve outcomes? What should be the mix of science rooms and science laboratories? Is expensive laboratory space adequately utilised? Practical Science, Laboratories and Equipment (cont.)

21. 21 Science equipment is needed but can be expensive to purchase and maintain. How much equipment is needed to teach which science concepts? Which strategies can lower costs, increase use, and extend useful life? How cost effective are science kits? Practical Science, Laboratories and Equipment (cont.)

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23. 23 Selection and Assessment Selection of students for science education should be valid and reliable. If it is not it will be neither efficient or equitable. Are assessment instruments valid and reliable? Do they have predictive validity? Do they assess teachers or students? Do assessment strategies reinforce valued outcomes?

24. 24 Selection and Assessment (cont.) Do they provide formative information to improve learning and teaching ? How can the quality of school based assessment be improved? How should practical work be assessed?

25. 25 Science Examinations Used for Selection to Secondary Schools

26. 26 Science Examinations Used for Selection to Secondary Schools

27. 27 Science Teacher Education and Deployment Science is taught by teachers with many different forms of training. What level of science education and type of training is appropriate to teach science to which level? What balance should there be in training between content upgrading and science teaching methods?

28. 28 Science Teacher Education and Deployment (cont.) How should new teachers be supported? How long is the average science teachers career? What does this imply for approaches to teacher education and professional development? Are trained science teachers deployed efficiently?

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31. 31 Some Conclusions Science education policy: Human resource demands arising from economic development strategies have to be balanced with felt needs which create effective demand for science education.

32. 32 Some Conclusions (cont.) Supply, demand and participation: Different patterns of supply, demand and participation invite different policy and different priorities for science education.

33. 33 Some Conclusions (cont.). Valued outcomes: Outcomes should differ for future professionals, middle level S + T workers, the general population and marginalised groups. This has implications for selection, specialization, curriculum, and cost structures.

34. 34 Some Conclusions (cont.) Key Issues for cost effective science education Design, development and distribution of learning and teaching materials Practical work, laboratories and equipment Selection and assessment Teacher education and deployment

35. 35 1. How can the availability of learning materials be improved at sustainable levels of cost? 2. Is the present cost of laboratories justified by the contribution practical work makes to learning outcomes? Some Questions (2)

36. 36 3. Is selection and assessment efficient and equitable? If not what needs to be done? 4. What methods of teacher education will meet future needs? How should they be different from past practice and why? 5. What are the costs per student of teaching science at different levels? What is the structure of these costs and how can they be reduced? Some Questions (2) (cont.)

37. 37 Fin