1. BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS
Behaviour in Animals

2. Innate versus learned behaviour
The study of animal behaviour is called ethology
The focus of this section is to look at the function of particular behaviour, rather than the mechanisms underlying a particular behaviour.

3. Innate Behaviour - definition
When a behaviour is essentially the same in all members of a species, the behaviour is call innate or inborn behaviour.
It is genetically controlled
List some innate animal behaviours

4. Learned Behaviour - definition
Learned behaviours are those that develop or change as we are shown how to do something. Copy, trial-and-error are some of the ways animals learn.
When a behaviour is changed as a result of experience, learning has occurred.
Learning enables an animal to adapt to change.

5. Activity performed in response to stimulus
Behaviour
Activity performed in response to stimulus
Learned Behaviours
Behaviours that develop or change as a result of experience
Innate Behaviours
Behaviours that are essentially the same in all members of a species
Conditioning – respond to stimulus that normally does not elicit response
Rhythmic behaviours
Eg. Eating, sleeping, seasonal migration
Operant conditioning – animal relates behaviour with reward or punishment and repeats or avoids behaviour
Communication behaviours
Reproductive behaviours
Habituation – cease to respond to stimuli
Competitive behaviours
Imprinting – association with an object after exposure to it very early in life
Dominance behaviours
Social interactions
Territoriality
Observational – learns from observing actions of others

6. Innate Behaviours Rhythmic Behaviours
- Animals repeat behaviours at regular intervals
- Different species of animals may follow different patterns of rhythmic behaviour
- Differences in rhythmic behaviours may be a significant factor in the ability of a group of animals to exploit the resources within the area in which they live and avoid competition from other species.
- Regulated by both internal and external factors
- internal – biological clock
- external – light

7. Feeding Behaviour Feeding may be:- On an individual basis
On a group basis

8. Spider Webs
Many innate behaviours in spiders involve the use of silk – in feeding and in reproduction
Spider webs vary in their design and structure

9. Whales
The species of whales are classified into two major groups – Toothed and Baleen.
Differing structures result in differing behaviours related to functions
Gulping and skimming techniques suit the structures of the baleen whales (p346)
Bubble netting is used by the humpback whale (p347)

10. Migration
The movement of large numbers of animals over long distances from one area to another area, and their subsequent return to their original home, is called migration.
Animals usually migrate using the same route each time.
A diverse range of species migrate – birds, fish, eels, insects and mammals

11. Migration
Some animals may take years to complete their migration cycle
Winter and the disappearance of food – migration. Very low temperatures can be fatal to some species
Migration is an important survival strategy

12. Bird Migration
More than 1/3 of the world’s species of birds migrate

13. Why do birds migrate? Birds need a constant supply of food
Approach of winter, reduction in food supply. Migrate to warmer climate for a more abundant food supply
Migratory behaviour enhances survival

14. How do birds know where to fly?
Innate, young birds are born ‘knowing’ to migrate
Sun, stars, Earth’s magnetic field help determine the direction of flight
Magnetite has been found in the tissues of some birds. Its presence is related to the bird’s ability to navigate using the magnetic field.

15. Communication Behaviours
Communication in the animals is an innate behaviour. Can be through:- touch, posture, sound, visual display and chemical signals
Communication behaviour is a response to a stimulus

16. Communication Behaviours
Important components of communication include:-
Stimulus for the communication
Sender of a signal
Receiver to whom the signal is directed
The kind of signal sent
How the signal is sent
The behaviour of the receiver
The setting in which the communication occurs
How does the Bower bird communicate that he is a good potential mate?

17. Communication Behaviours
Messages to trick a competitor
Eg alarm calls to trick a competitor (p 349)

18. Communication Behaviours
The language of bees
The dance to indicate the location of a food source. Bees also use smell
Why is it important for survival for worker bees to communicate to each regarding the location of a food source.

19. Communication Behaviours
COMMUNICATION UNDER WATER
Sound is an important means of communication underwater
Sound is transmitted through water for long distances. Light can only penetrate very short distances below the surfaces
The range of whale and dolphin noises include: blips, clicks, groans, moans and snores, lasting from a few seconds to several hours.

20. Communication Behaviours
Why do whales sing?
To locate and identify each other
During courtship

21. Communication Behaviours
Navigation, hunting
Clicks
Play-chase, pain
Squawk
Courtship, mating
Yelp
Threat
Buzz
Alarm, fright, distress
Squeaks, cracks, pops
Resting, predator nearby
Silence
Dolphins
Use various sounds to communicate different information
Use sounds for location and navigation
Echolocation for determining position

22. Communication Behaviours
CHEMICALS FOR COMMUNICATION
Pheromones
Used for identifying the location of food sources (leaving a pheromone trail)
Attract members of the opposite sex (eg female dogs release a pheromone in the urine to notify males she is ready for mating)
Can act over long or short distances
Very easy for insects and other animals to locate a mate, even in sparsely populated areas.

23. Social and Territorial Interactions
Social Interaction
Involves two or more individuals.
May involve cooperation (mating, food source)
May involve aggression and conflict as individuals or group to defend territory or select a mate

24. Social and Territorial Interactions
Reproductive behaviours
(discussed further in chapter 12)

25. Social and Territorial Interactions
GROUP ORGANISATION
Size of groups and reasons for which the animals group varies
A group may be permanent or stay together until its members are such that it splits in two
Being a member of a group is safer than being alone
Different kinds of groups are found in different species of animals
Groups may be formed to make collecting food easier, for protection, for shelter or for mating.
Whatever the reason, it increases the chances of survival of members of the group and the species.

26. Social and Territorial Interactions
GROUP ORGANISATION
Castes
Eg ants, bees, termites, some wasps
Each caste has a different structure and performs a different function in the group

27. Social and Territorial Interactions
GROUP ORGANISATION
Social Hierarchies
That is a pecking order.
Fighting occurs until an animal ‘knows its place’ in a group
The higher an animal is in the pecking order the greater access to food and other aspects of life in the group
Stronger animals in the group will have offspring that are more likely to be stronger members of the next generation

28. Social and Territorial Interactions
GROUP ORGANISATION
Leadership
A complex social hierarchy
Eg – Baboons with a dominant male and other males in rank order behind
Why must a dog owner be the leader of the pack?

29. Social and Territorial Interactions
GROUP ORGANISATION
Territorial Behaviour
Eg The dreaded Magpie swoop!
Animals select a territory and defend it, protecting a mating territory or food source.

30. Social and Territorial Interactions
COMPETITION
Animals may compete for nesting places, positions in an hierarchy, etc
Group dynamics is important for survival and reproduction in many species.

31. Social and Territorial Interactions
Many animals congregate in groups. Wolves hunt in packs in order to corner their prey. A wolf hunting singly would not be nearly as successful a hunter, and so we can call group hunting an adaptation since it increases the wolves’ chances of survival.
COOPERATION
Animals often cooperate

32. Do Innate behaviours remain constant?
Innate behaviours are genetically determined and are similar in all members of the species.
However, innate behaviour is not necessarily fully developed at birth and may be modified by learning.
This learning comes through trial-and-error and experience.

33. LEARNED BEHAVIOURS
Some behaviours change as a result of maturation of the body of an organism due to hormonal and structural changes.
These should not be confused with learned behaviours which are those that develop or change as a result of experience

34. Table from page 343 repeat slide

35. LEARNED BEHAVIOURS Conditioning Eg food stimulus/response
Pavlov’s Dog experiment – the ringing of a bell prior to feeding a dog. Eventually the dog salivates just at the ringing of the bell.

36. LEARNED BEHAVIOURS
Pavlov’s experiment is known as Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning is trial-and-error

37. Operant Conditioning Organisms make responses that have consequences
The consequences serve to increase or decrease the likelihood of making that response again
The response can be associated with cues in the environment
We put coins in a machine to obtain food
But we refrain when an Out of Order sign is placed on the machine

38. Key Aspects of Operant Conditioning
In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a cue, it does not elicit the response
Operant responses are voluntary
In operant conditioning, the response elicits a reinforcing stimulus, whereas in classical conditioning, the UCS elicits the reflexive response

39. Key Terms of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement is any procedure that increases the response
Punishment is any procedure that decreases the response
Types of reinforcers:
Primary: satisfy a biological need
Secondary: have learned value

40. LEARNED BEHAVIOURS Habituation
The ability to ‘get used to’ a repeated stimulus, such as a noise, is called habituation.
Why is Habituation important for animals?
- Animals will respond to a noise if they think it has been made by a predator.
- Habituation enable animals to distinguish the unimportant noises and shapes from those that are important
- Habituation allows animals to ignore meaningless stimuli and save energy for activities critical for survival.

41. LEARNED BEHAVIOURS Insight
Insight learning is related to the ability of an animal to apply past experience to solving a new problem without a trial-and-error period
Most highly developed in humans
Play forms an important part in developing problem-solving skills for later use.

42. LEARNED BEHAVIOURS Imprinting
The formation of an attachment to something in the environment shortly after hatching or birth is called imprinting
The learning that takes place during imprinting is rapid and cannot be reversed

43. LEARNING FROM ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR
If we understand the natural behaviour of animals, we can also analyse and interpret any change in behaviour.
A change in animal behaviour can sometimes indicate a change in the environment