1. Culture and Gender Part 2

2. Perceptual/Spatial/Cognitive Differences  Common American folklore is that males are better at mathematical and spatial reasoning tasks and females do better on verbal comprehension tasks  This is not necessarily true for other cultures.  No gender difference in spatial abilities in Inuit culture in Canada and in Ecuador (women engage in tasks that require spatial abilities).  Males did better in tight, sedentary, and agriculturally based cultures.  Females did better in loose, nomadic, and hunting and gathering based cultures.

3. Conformity and Obedience  Common gender-role stereotypes is that females are more conforming and obedient than males.  This is not necessarily true for other cultures.  In tighter cultures, females more conformists than males, but,  In looser cultures, there are less gender differences in conformity or males can be more conforming.

4. Aggressiveness  Common gender-role stereotypes is that males more aggressive than females  There is support for this stereotype in many cultures.  In study of physical aggression between partners in 52 countries, it was found:  In developed Western cultures, both sexes displayed aggression.  In individualistic, women empowered cultures, less female victimization was noted.  Social role theory

5. Aggressiveness  Many cultures did not show sex-related differences in teaching about aggression to children.  Currently the mechanism accounting for gender differences in aggression unknown.  Biology, culture, gender marking behavior

6. Gender Roles  Androgyny: gender identity involving endorsement of both male and female characteristics.  African-American males and females are more androgynous than European males and females.  Adolescent girls in US, Israel, and Hong Kong with an androgynous identity have higher self acceptance than feminine or masculine girls; for boys, masculine identity is associated with the highest level of self acceptance.

7. Gender Roles  What is the status of traditional gender roles for Asian Americans, Mexican Americans and Native Americans..  Loosening of rigid gender roles for Asians and Mexican Americans.  Despite lingering notions of machismo, culturally acceptable roles for Latina women are expanding.  Gender role differentiation dependent on patriarchal or matriarchal nature of tribal culture of origin for Native Americans.

8. Sex and Sexuality  Cultures differ on degree of importance placed on chastity for women and sexuality in general.  Attitudes toward sex and sexuality are related to cultural values of dignity, purity, and honor.  Culture is linked to practice of male circumcision and female genital mutilation.  Female genital mutilation is associated with honor and virtue in some cultures.

9. Mate Selection, Mate Poaching, and Jealousy  Gender differences in preferences for mate and sexual jealousy are universal.  Males are more jealous of sexual infidelity.  Females are more jealous of emotional infidelity.  Evolutionary model

10. Personality  Universally, woman score higher on Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Warmth, and Openness to Feelings.  Men scored higher on Assertiveness, and Openness to ideas.  Personality differences between men and women were largest in Europe and US.

11. Ethnicity and Gender in the US  Most research is based on comparisons of African Americans with European Americans  Gender identities of African Americans are more androgynous (gender identity that involves male and female characteristics) than those of European Americans.  Asian American families carry on traditional gender roles with women bearing the brunt of domestic duties..

12.  Mexican American roles are similar to Asian roles  The concept of Machismo - traditional expectation of the male gender role, such as being unemotional, strong, authoritative, aggressive, and masculine  Native Americans depend on the patriarchical or matriarchical nature of the tribal culture of origin.

13. Empirical Research Questions  What has been the effect of globalization and technology on attitudes about masculinity and domestic violence?  What are some cross-cultural views about choosing to stay single?  Are there cross-cultural differences regarding extra marital affairs by men and women?  Attitudes toward love across cultures: Do differences exist ?

14. Lee’s Six Stage Model of Love  1. Eros – passionate love  2. Ludus – game-playing love  3. Storge – friendship love  4. Pragma – practical love -a combination of ludus and storge

15. Lee’s Model (cont.)  5. Mania – possessive love  a combination of eros and ludus  6. Agape – altruistic love  a combination of eros and storge

16. Summary  Gender differences in psychological behaviors may stem from varying demands placed on culture by environment; therefore cultural differences exist in behaviors.  Cultures are similar in stereotypes and attitudes concerning gender differences.

17. CHANGING CULTURES, CHANGING GENDER ROLES

18.  Changes in culture bring about changes in gender roles.  This has both positive (e.g., women more economically independent) and negative consequences (e.g., higher divorce rates and higher health problems for women).