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7 The Skeleton
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The bones of the axial skeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 206 Cranium 8 APPENDICULAR SKELETON (see Section 2) Skull 126 Face 14 Skull and associated bones 29 Auditory ossicles 6 Associated bones Hyoid 1 AXIAL SKELETON Costal cartilages (cartilages of ribs) 80 Sternum 1 Thoracic cage 25 Ribs 24 Intervertebral discs (cartilage) Vertebrae 24 Vertebral column 26 Sacrum 1 Coccyx 1 Figure 7 Section 1 The Axial Skeleton Figure 7 Section 1 2
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The 22 bones that form the skull, plus the seven
bones associated with the skull SKULL FACE 14 CRANIUM 8 ASSOCIATED BONES (see Module 7.7) 7 Maxillary bones 2 Occipital bone 1 Palatine bones 2 Parietel bones 2 Nasal bones 2 Frontal bone 1 Inferior nasal conchae Temporal bones 2 Hyoid bone 1 2 Auditory ossicles enclosed in temporal bones Sphenoid 1 6 Zygomatic bones 2 Ethmoid 1 Lacrimal bones 2 Figure The skull has cranial and facial components that are usually bound together by sutures Vomer 1 Mandible 1 Figure 3
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Frontal bone Parietal bone Temporal bone
The facial and cranial bones of the skull Cranial Bones Frontal bone Parietal bone Temporal bone Sphenoid Ethmoid Figure The skull has cranial and facial components that are usually bound together by sutures Occipital bone Figure 4
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The major sutures of the skull
Frontal bone Coronal suture Parietal bone Squamous suture Temporal bone Occipital bone Lambdoid suture Lateral view of skull Sagittal suture Figure The skull has cranial and facial components that are usually bound together by sutures Parietal bone Parietal bone Sutural bone Lambdoid suture Occipital bone Posterior view of skull Figure – 6 5
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The bones of the skull in anterior view
Facial Bones Cranial Bones Nasal bone Parietal bone Frontal bone Lacrimal bone Palatine bone Sphenoid Zygomatic bone Maxilla Ethmoid Figure Facial bones dominate the anterior aspect of the skull, and cranial bones dominate the posterior surface Inferior nasal concha Vomer Mandible Figure 6
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The bones of the skull in posterior view
Cranial Bones Sagittal suture Parietal bones Occipital bone Lambdoid suture Temporal bone Squamous suture Mastoid process Figure Facial bones dominate the anterior aspect of the skull, and cranial bones dominate the posterior surface Styloid process External occipital crest Mandible Figure 7
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Frontal bone Parietal bone Temporal bone Zygomatic bone Occipital bone
The skull in lateral view Coronal suture Superior and inferior temporal lines Frontal squama (forehead) Squamous part (of temporal bone) Squamous suture Sphenoid Frontal bone Parietal bone External acoustic meatus Ethmoid Lacrimal bone Temporal bone Nasal bone Maxilla Lambdoid suture Zygomatic bone Alveolar processes Occipital bone Figure The lateral and medial aspects of the skull share many surface features Mastoid process Styloid process Mandible Zygomatic arch (cheekbone) Mental protuberance Mandibular angle Figure 8
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The interior of the skull, as revealed by sagittal
section that passes just to the left of the midline Frontal bone Coronal suture Sphenoidal sinus (right) Sphenoid Sella turcica Petrous part (of temporal bone) Frontal sinuses Parietal bone Squamous suture Lambdoid suture Nasal bone Temporal bone Ethmoid Vomer Figure The lateral and medial aspects of the skull share many surface features Internal acoustic meatus Occipital bone Palatine bone Hypoglossal canal Maxilla Mandible Styloid process Figure 9
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External occipital crest
An inferior view of the skull Zygomatic bone Frontal bone Palatine bone Maxilla Vomer Foramina Foramen lacerum Sphenoid Foramen ovale Zygomatic arch Styloid process Carotid canal Mandibular fossa Jugular foramen Temporal bone Figure The foramina on the inferior surface of the skull lead into the interior of the cranium Occipital condyle Stylomastoid foramen Occipital bone Lambdoid suture Foramen magnum Inferior and superior nuchal lines External occipital crest Figure 10
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Internal occipital crest
The interior of the skull, as revealed by horizontal section Nasal bones Frontal bone Crista galli Ethmoid Cribriform plate Sella turcica Foramen rotundum Sphenoid Foramen lacerum Temporal bone Foramen ovale Foramen spinosum Carotid canal Internal acoustic meatus Figure The foramina on the inferior surface of the skull lead into the interior of the cranium Mastoid foramen Parietal bone Jugular foramen Hypoglossal canal Occipital bone Internal occipital crest Figure 11
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Two views of the sphenoid
Greater wing Optic canal Lesser wing Superior surface of the sphenoid Hypophyseal fossa Figure The shapes and landmarks of the sphenoid, ethmoid, and palatine bones can best be seen in the isolated bones Sella turcica Foramen spinosum Foramen ovale Foramen rotundum Superior orbital fissure Sphenoidal spine Figure 12
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The ethmoid Cribriform plate Crista galli Lateral masses Figure The shapes and landmarks of the sphenoid, ethmoid, and palatine bones can best be seen in the isolated bones Superior and middle nasal conchae Perpendicular plate Superior surface Posterior surface Figure 13
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The palatine bones Orbital process Perpendicular plate
of the palatine bone Nasal crest Figure The shapes and landmarks of the sphenoid, ethmoid, and palatine bones can best be seen in the isolated bones Horizontal plate Figure 14
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The bones of the orbital complex
Supra-orbital margin Lacrimal fossa Supra-orbital notch Frontal bone Palatine bone Ethmoid Lacrimal sulcus Sphenoid Temporal bone Figure Each orbital complex contains one eye, and the nasal complex encloses the nasal cavities Nasolacrimal canal Zygomatic bone Middle nasal concha Zygomaticofacial foramen Intra-orbital foramen Inferior nasal concha Maxilla Figure 15
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The bones of the nasal complex
Cranial cavity Frontal bone Ethmoidal air cells Orbit Zygomatic bone Maxillary sinus Maxilla Frontal section Figure Each orbital complex contains one eye, and the nasal complex encloses the nasal cavities Mandible Nasal cavities Figure 16
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The bones that form and surround the nasal cavity, as
revealed by a sagittal section with nasal septum removed Frontal sinuses Frontal bone Sphenoidal sinus Sphenoid Nasal bone Ethmoid Lacrimal bone Superior nasal concha Inferior nasal concha Middle nasal concha Perpendicular plate of palatine bone Pterygoid plates Figure Each orbital complex contains one eye, and the nasal complex encloses the nasal cavities Maxilla Hard palate Figure 17
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The mandible in lateral view
Coronoid process Teeth (molars) Condylar process Alveolar process Figure The mandible forms the lower jaw, and the associated bones of the skull perform specialized functions Mental foramen Mandibular notch Body of the mandible Ramus of the mandible Figure 18
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The medial surface of the mandible
Coronoid process Condylar process Mylohyoid line Head Mandibular foramen Alveolar part Figure The mandible forms the lower jaw, and the associated bones of the skull perform specialized functions Position of the submandibular salivary gland Figure 19
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The hyoid bone Greater horn Lesser horn Body of the hyoid
Figure The mandible forms the lower jaw, and the associated bones of the skull perform specialized functions Figure 20
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The auditory ossicles, bones associated
with the skull SKULL ASSOCIATED BONES 7 FACE 14 CRANIUM 8 Maxillary bones 2 Occipital bone 1 Palatine bones 2 Parietal bones 2 Auditory ossicles enclosed in temporal bones (see Chapter 15) Nasal bones 2 Frontal bone 1 Hyoid bone 1 6 Inferior nasal conchae 2 Temporal bones 2 Sphenoid 1 Zygomatic bones 2 Ethmoid 1 Lacrimal bones 2 Vomer 1 Mandible 1 Figure The mandible forms the lower jaw, and the associated bones of the skull perform specialized functions Figure 21
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Right parietal bone Left parietal bone
The anterior fontanelle (“soft spot”) and associated sutures in the skull of an infant Sagittal suture Right parietal bone Left parietal bone Anterior fontanelle Coronal suture Frontal suture Figure Fontanelles permit cranial growth in infants and small children Frontal bone Frontal suture Figure 22
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Left parietal bone Right parietal bone
The occipital fontanelle and associated sutures in a posterior view of the skull of an infant Left parietal bone Right parietal bone Sagittal suture Occipital fontanelle Figure Fontanelles permit cranial growth in infants and small children Lambdoid suture Occipital bone Figure 23
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Frontal bone Parietal bone Temporal bone
A lateral view of the skull of an infant Sphenoidal fontanelle Coronal suture Frontal bone Parietal bone Sphenoid Squamous suture Mastoid fontanelle Nasal bone Temporal bone Maxilla Figure Fontanelles permit cranial growth in infants and small children Mandible Lambdoid suture Occipital bone Figure 24
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Parietal bone Frontal bone Sagittal suture Frontal bone Parietal bone
A superior view of the skull of an infant Parietal bone Lambdoid suture Frontal bone Frontal suture Sagittal suture Occipital fontanelle Anterior fontanelle Frontal bone Parietal bone Occipital bone Figure Fontanelles permit cranial growth in infants and small children Coronal suture Figure 25
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The spinal curves and vertebral regions in the adult vertebral column
Primary curves develop before birth, and secondary curves after birth. Regions are defined by anatomical characteristics of individual vertebrae. C1 C2 Cervical curve (a secondary curve) C3 C4 Cervical (7 vertebrae) C5 C6 C7 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Thoracic curve (a primary curve) T6 T7 Thoracic (12 vertebrae) T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 Figure The vertebral column has four spinal curves, and vertebrae have both anatomical similarities and regional differences L1 L2 Lumbar curve (a secondary curve) L3 Lumbar (5 vertebrae) L4 L5 Sacral Sacral curve (a primary curve) Coccygeal Figure 26
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Figure The vertebral column has four spinal curves, and vertebrae have both anatomical similarities and regional differences Figure 27
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The parts of a typical vertebra Parts of a Vertebra
Articular processes Vertebral arch Vertebral body Figure The vertebral column has four spinal curves, and vertebrae have both anatomical similarities and regional differences Superior view Figure 28
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The parts of the vertebral arch The Vertebral Arch
Spinous process Vertebral foramen Laminae Transverse process Figure The vertebral column has four spinal curves, and vertebrae have both anatomical similarities and regional differences Pedicles Inferior view Figure 29
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A lateral view of three vertebrae
Pedicle Intervertebral disc Intervertebral foramina Figure The vertebral column has four spinal curves, and vertebrae have both anatomical similarities and regional differences Vertebral body Vertebral canal Figure 30
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Superior articular process Inferior articular process
A posterior view of two vertebrae Articular facet Superior articular process Inferior articular process Figure The vertebral column has four spinal curves, and vertebrae have both anatomical similarities and regional differences Figure 31
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A typical cervical vertebra
Bifid spinous process Vertebral foramen Transverse foramen Transverse process Figure There are seven cervical vertebrae and twelve thoracic vertebrae Vertebral body Costal process Figure 32
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The first two cervical vertebrae: the atlas and the axis Anterior
arch of atlas Atlas Dens (odontoid process) Ligament that enables rotation (as in shaking the head to indicate “no”) Joint that permits nodding (as in indicating “yes”) Figure There are seven cervical vertebrae and twelve thoracic vertebrae Axis Posterior arch of atlas Figure 33
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A lateral view of the seven cervical vertebrae
prominens Figure There are seven cervical vertebrae and twelve thoracic vertebrae Figure 34
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Figure 7.10.4 There are seven cervical vertebrae and twelve thoracic vertebrae
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A typical thoracic vertebra in superior view
Transverse process Spinous process Superior articular facet Vertebral foramen Superior costal facet Figure There are seven cervical vertebrae and twelve thoracic vertebrae Vertebral body Figure 36
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A typical thoracic vertebra in lateral view
Superior costal facet Transverse costal facet Vertebral body Spinous process Inferior costal facet Figure There are seven cervical vertebrae and twelve thoracic vertebrae Transverse process Figure 37
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An anterior view of the thoracic cage
Jugular notch T1 1 2 3 Sternum Manubrium 4 5 Ribs Figure The thoracic cage protects organs in the chest and provides sites for muscle attachment Vertebrosternal ribs (ribs 1–7) 6 Body 11 T11 Vertebrosternal ribs (ribs 8–10) 7 T12 12 8 9 Floating ribs (ribs 11 and 12) Xiphoid process 10 Costal cartilages Figure 38
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Posterior view of a representative rib (ribs 2–9)
Articular facets on head Capitulum Tubercle Angle of the rib Shaft Figure The thoracic cage protects organs in the chest and provides sites for muscle attachment Superficial surface Costal groove Figure 39
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The action of a typical rib, which can be likened to the movement
of a bucket’s handle Sternum Ribs Figure The thoracic cage protects organs in the chest and provides sites for muscle attachment Figure 40
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Superior view of a representative rib
Transverse process Tubercular facet Superior articular facet Transverse costal facet Figure The thoracic cage protects organs in the chest and provides sites for muscle attachment Inferior articular facet Figure 41
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The bones of the appendicular skeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 206 AXIAL SKELETON 80 Clavicle 2 Pectoral girdle 4 Scapula 2 Humerus 2 Radius 2 Ulna 2 Upper limbs 60 Carpal bones 16 Metacarpal bones 10 APPENDICULAR SKELETON 126 Phalanges (proximal, middle, distal) 28 Hip bone (coxal bone) 2 Pelvic girdle 2 Figure 7 Section 2 The Appendicular Skeleton Femur 2 Patella 2 Tibia 2 Fibula 2 Lower limbs 60 Tarsal bones 14 Metatarsal bones 10 Phalanges 28 Figure 7 Section 2 42
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The relationship of the clavicle to adjacent bones
Jugular notch Scapula Humerus Figure The pectoral girdles—the clavicles and scapulae—connect the upper limbs to the axial skeleton Anterior view Figure 43
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Two views of the right clavicle
Superior view LATERAL MEDIAL Acromial end Sternal end Figure The pectoral girdles—the clavicles and scapulae—connect the upper limbs to the axial skeleton LATERAL Inferior view MEDIAL Figure 44
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Two views of the right scapula
Scapular spine Acromion Coracoid process Superior border Superior angle Acromion Supraspinous fossa Subscapular fossa Process that supports the cup-shaped glenoid cavity Figure The pectoral girdles—the clavicles and scapulae—connect the upper limbs to the axial skeleton Medial border Infraspinous fossa Lateral border Anterior view Posterior view Inferior angle Figure – 4 45
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A lateral view of the right scapula
Coracoid process Glenoid cavity Acromion Figure The pectoral girdles—the clavicles and scapulae—connect the upper limbs to the axial skeleton Figure 46
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Surface features of the right humerus
Anterior view Posterior view Head Greater tubercle Greater tubercle Lesser tubercle Intertubercular groove Anatomical neck Surgical neck Radial groove Shaft Deltoid tuberosity Figure The humerus of the arm articulates with the radius and ulna of the forearm Radial fossa Coronoid fossa Olecranon fossa Lateral epicondyle Medial epicondyle Trochlea Capitulum Trochlea Figure 47
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Surface features of the right ulna and radius
Posterior view Anterior view Radial head Trochlear notch Olecranon Neck of the radius Coronoid process Proximal radio-ulnar joint Radial notch at proximal radio-ulnar joint Radial tuberosity Ulna Radius Radius Ulna Figure The humerus of the arm articulates with the radius and ulna of the forearm Interosseous membrane Ulnar notch Distal radio-ulnar joint Ulnar head Styloid process of the radius Ulnar head Styloid process of the ulna Figure 48
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The bones of the carpus (wrist)
Proximal Carpal Bones Scaphoid Lunate Pisiform Triquetrum Right wrist and hand, anterior (palmar) view Radius Ulna I II III IV V Metacarpal bones Figure The wrist is composed of carpal bones, and the hand consists of metacarpal bones and phalanges Proximal phalanx Distal Carpal Bones Trapezium Trapezoid Capitate Hamate Middle phalanx Distal phalanx Figure 49
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The metacarpal bones (designated I–V) and the phalanges of the hand Radius Ulna Proximal Carpal Bones Scaphoid Lunate Triquetrum Distal Carpal Bones Pisiform Trapezium Trapezoid Capitate Hamate I V III II IV Proximal phalanx of pollex Metacarpal bones Proximal phalanx Distal phalanx of pollex Figure The wrist is composed of carpal bones, and the hand consists of metacarpal bones and phalanges Middle phalanx Right wrist and hand, posterior (dorsal) view Distal phalanx Figure 50
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A hip bone, which consists of an
ilium, an ischium, and a pubis Ilium A lateral view of the right hip bone POSTERIOR ANTERIOR Pubis Ischium Iliac crest Gluteal Lines Anterior Inferior Anterior superior iliac spine Posterior Posterior superior iliac spine Lunate surface Posterior inferior iliac spine Figure The hip bone forms by the fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis Greater sciatic notch Acetabulum Ischial spine Ischial ramus Ischial tuberosity Acetabular notch Figure – 2 51
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A medial view of the right hip bone
Ilium ANTERIOR POSTERIOR Pubis Ischium Iliac crest Iliac tuberosity Iliac fossa Auricular surface of the ilium Arcuate line of the ilium Figure The hip bone forms by the fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis Greater sciatic notch Pectineal line Obturator foramen Superior pubic ramus Pubic symphysis Ischial ramus Inferior pubic ramus Figure 52
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The structures of the pelvis
Sacrum Hip Bone Ilium Coccyx Pubis Ischium L5 Iliac crest Iliac fossa Ilium Sacrum Figure The pelvis consists of the two hip bones plus the sacrum and the coccyx Sacro-iliac joint Acetabulum Pubic tubercle Obturator foramen Ischium Pubic symphysis Figure 53
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Superior view Inferior view
The locations and extents of the true (lesser) pelvis (in purple) and the false (greater) pelvis Superior view Inferior view Pelvic outlet False pelvis Ischial spine Figure The pelvis consists of the two hip bones plus the sacrum and the coccyx Pelvic inlet Pelvic brim Pelvic outlet Figure 54
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The shapes of the pelvis in females and males
The pelvis of a female The pelvis of a male Female Male Ischial spine Ischial spine Figure The pelvis consists of the two hip bones plus the sacrum and the coccyx 100° or more 90° or less Figure 55
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Figure 7.18.1-2 The femur articulates with the patella and tibia
Landmarks of the right femur Neck Fovea capitis Greater trochanter Greater trochanter Femoral head Intertrochanteric crest Gluteal tuberosity Intertrochanteric line Linea aspera Lesser trochanter Anterior view Posterior view Figure The femur articulates with the patella and tibia Shaft Lateral supracondylar ridge Popliteal surface Adductor tubercle Patellar surface Lateral epicondyle Medial epicondyle Intercondylar fossa Lateral condyle Medial condyle Lateral epicondyle Lateral condyle Figure 56
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Anterior view Posterior view
The surface features of the patella Base of patella Lateral facet, for lateral condyle of femur Attachment area for quadriceps tendon Medial facet, for medial condyle of femur Attachment area for the patellar ligament, which attaches the patella to the tibia Articular surface of patella Apex of patella Figure The femur articulates with the patella and tibia Anterior view Posterior view Figure 57
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Anterior view Posterior view
The features of the right tibia and fibula Superior tibiofibular joint Articular surface of medial tibial condyle Intercondylar eminence Lateral tibial condyle Articular surface of lateral tibial condyle Medial tibial condyle Head of the fibula Lateral tibial condyle Tibial tuberosity Head of fibula Interosseous membrane Anterior view Posterior view Anterior margin of the tibia Figure The femur articulates with the patella and tibia Tibia Fibula Fibula Medial malleolus of the tibia Inferior tibiofibular joint Lateral malleolus of the fibula Lateral malleolus (fibula) Inferior articular surface Figure 58
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The Ankle (Tarsus) The bones of the ankle and foot The ankle consists of seven tarsal bones. Calcaneus Talus Navicular Trochlea Cuboid Cuneiform bones Metatarsals Articulations of the cuboid and the cuneiform bones with the metatarsal bones V IV III II I Figure 7.19 The ankle and foot contain tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges Metatarsal bones (designated I–V) Proximal phalanx Phalanges Distal phalanx Proximal, middle, and distal phalanges Hallux Figure 59
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A lateral view of the right ankle and foot
Cuboid bone Navicular bone Cuneiform bones Metatarsal bones (I–V) Lateral surface of the trochlea Phalanges Lateral view I II Attachment site for the calcaneal tendon (Achilles tendon) III IV V Figure The ankle and foot contain tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges Figure 60
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A medial view of the right ankle and foot
Phalanges Metatarsal bones Medial cuneiform bone Navicular bone Talus Medial view I Calcaneus Figure The ankle and foot contain tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges Longitudinal arch Transverse arch Figure 61
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