1. Cognitive information processing

2. A result of several influences
Especially:
Learning theory
S-R; S-O-R
Computer science/Information processing
Turing
Intelligent machines
Information theory
Shannon/Bell Labs

3. Proposes:
A series of processes are performed on environmental information that then affect the behavior of the organism (person)
Input processes, storage processes, output processes
Mainly in the brain, but not all
The processes are in a relatively invariant order
All people follow the same set of processes of thinking
However, the outcomes can be quite different

4. Four major types of info processing theories
Stage theory
Depth of processing theory
Parallel distributed processing theory
Connectionist models

5. Stage theory Argues for three major types of memory Sensory memory
Short-term memory
Long-term memory

6. Levels-of-processing
All information is stored, problem is in retrieval
Retrieval is based on the amount of elaboration used in processing of information
Perception, attention, labeling, meaning

7. Parallel distributed processing theory
Simultaneous processing by several different parts of memory system rather than sequentially

8. Connectionistic theory
Information is stored in multiple locations throughout the brain in the form of networks of connections
More connections to a single idea or concept, the more likely it is to be stored and retrieved

9. General principles
Limited capacity available for active processing at any given time
Bottlenecks
Control mechanism—part of the system’s processing capacity must be assigned to a control mechanism
Allocates processing capacity
Prioritizes activities
Coordinates actions

10. Sensory activation
Environmental cues generate changes within specialized organs
Eyes
Ears
Skin
Tongue
Only a portion of environmental phenomena generate sensual changes
Perceptual thresholds
Infrared light
X-rays

11. Transduction of sensual reaction
Sensory organs create patterns of electrical impulses as a response to environmental stimuli
(Transduction)
Qualitatively different patterns are produced for visual, sound, touch (haptic), and language (semantic) memory systems

12. Buffering and filtering
Sensual buffers are thought to exist that retain the electrical impulses for a short period of time
The ‘most important’ content is passed along while the ‘less important’ content is filtered out
Cannot handle the vast amount of information that senses generate
Filtering is based on ‘pattern recognition’

13. Stimuli that pass through filters
Inhibitor modulation
Those patterns, etc. that are neither seen as especially important nor so unimportant that they can be ignored are “dampened”
Allows for monitoring of content without use of extensive processing capacity

14. Working memory
The active portion of memory (including consciousness) where processes that reject, evaluate, interpret
Limited capacity
Allocation of processing capacity is known as “attention”
Intentional v. automatic
“content attributes” v. need recognition

15. Working memory
Must draw upon ‘long-term memory’ to assign meaning to the new patterns of electrical impulses
What does “economic impact” (a pattern of impulses representing a set of characters on a page) mean?
Meaning is actually the set of relationships identified/constructed between existing concepts and the new ones

16. Determinants of attention
Most content is disposed of quickly—recognized as routine and then ignored
Does not get integrated into long-term memory (some controversy here)
“Habituation” of repetitive tasks, experiences leads to ‘monitoring’
Attention allocated to divergence from the norm, expectations

17. Determinants of attention
Hard-wired to attend to cues that had survival value (those that didn’t left the gene pool)
Movement
Loud noises
Bright colors/contrasts
Unexpected or unusual features

18. Film examples
Apocalypse Now
The Bourne Identity
Master and Commander

19. Determinants of attention
Internally-generated needs draw attention to ‘content’ that relates to those needs
Hunger
Pain
Fear
Sexual desire

21. Determinants of attention
Learned interests and evaluations of importance direct attention to certain ‘content’
Those with an interest in foreign affairs will allocated attention to news stories about Iraq, etc.

22. Capacity For a long time, considered “7+/-2 chunks” of information
More recent research has argued that we have greater capacity
Ability to monitor many environmental cues at one time

23. Processing Info is processed at different levels
From simple recognition thru “elaboration”
Automatic, lizard-brain response to

24. The more we already know in a given domain, the less effort to process new information
The less ‘change’ likely as a result of processing
Experts less likely to change their minds due to inclusion of new info
However, experts more likely to deeply process info in their area of interest

25. Long-term memory
A portion of ‘information’ from working memory is prepared for transfer to long-term (permanent) storage
To do so, it is integrated into structures of meaning (schema) held within long-term memory
The integration gives ‘meaning’ to the new information while reconfiguring the schema that are activated to interpret the new info
Reconfiguration of schema is usually minor

26. Interpretation
Interpretation is the process of comparing new info to that held in LTM
Usually the outcome is largely in line with existing beliefs
“Biased” interpretation
Many scholars see this as ego-defensive
May simply be efficient with regard to the massive flow of information and limited cognitive capacity

27. Retrieval from LTM Information retrieved from LTM is limited
Would quickly reach overload if we tried to access all potentially relevant info
Would take far too long—can’t spend long periods of time on anything but the most crucial new info/decision-making
Retrieval based on perceived shared or similar meaning/concepts
Memories in LTM organized hierarchically? Schematically? Etc.

28. Influences on retrieval
Frequency and Recency of Activation
Memory traces are strengthened through use, become less strong over time
Vividness
Emotionality
Relationships with other related concepts
One concept is likely to be accessed when another, closely related concept, is accessed

29. Influences on retrieval
Concepts are retrieved according to the set of relationships they have with other concepts
Spreading activation
The structure of relationships varies by individual
Culture influences structure of relations/ topics/concepts held

30. Learning Content features Multiple exposure
Repetition
Attachment with existing beliefs/knowledge
Vividness
Emotionality
Alignment with existing beliefs
Multiple exposure
Existing knowledge (targeting)
Interest

31. Learning/memory
Evidence indicates quite limited ability to recall or even recognize media content experienced recently
Memory for ‘distant’ content exhibits clear biases
Even relatively powerful memories can be ‘false’

32. Persuasion Reconfiguration of evaluative schema
Persuasive messages tend to exhibit certain features:
Credible sources
Vivid examples rather than statistical trends
Emotionality
Visual logic
Propaganda methods (demonization, attachment to revered symbols, etc.)

33. Decision-making Internal and external sources of information
Low-effort decision-making the rule
Even for ‘important’ decisions (cars and make-up)
Satisficing the most common behavior
Costs of info search v. expected return
Much more likely to depend on existing knowledge, info than to engage in active information seeking

34. “Mindless” behavior
Much of our behavior is relatively automatic—don’t see the effort necessary to change ingrained behaviors as worth the costs
Much of media use is relatively ‘mindless’

35. Behavior
Behavior is mostly controlled by the outcome of info processing in working memory
Actions taken to meet needs/drives/ motivations
Responses to environmental demands
Goal-directed behavior

36. Behavior effectiveness and adjustment
The environmental change observed after behavioral action acts as new information that goes through the info processing system and is encoded into our schema relating to the topic
Perceived success, failure becomes a guide to new action brought on by perceived needs, etc.