1. Chapter 4: Perception, Attribution, and the Management of Diversity
Understanding
and
Managing
Organizational
Behavior
4th Edition
Chapter 4: Perception, Attribution, and the Management of Diversity
Insert photo from
case opening?
JENNIFER GEORGE
& GARETH JONES

2. Chapter Objectives
Describe how perception is inherently subjective and how characteristics of the perceiver, the target, and the situation can influence perceptions
Understand how the use of schemas can both aid and detract from accurate perceptions
Be aware of biases that can influence perception without perceivers being aware of their influences

3. Chapter Objectives
Appreciate why the effective management of diversity is an imperative for all kinds of organizations and the steps that organizations can take to ensure that different kinds of people are treated fairly and that the organization is able to take advantage of all they have to offer

4. Chapter Objectives
Understand why attributions are so important and how they can sometimes be faulty
Describe the two major forms of sexual harassment and the steps organizations can take to combat sexual harassment

5. Opening Case: Proactively Managing Diversity
Why do organizations need to guard against discrimination and proactively manage diversity?
Is discrimination a thing of the past?
Who suffers from discrimination?
This case describes the accomplishments of Richard Branson and how his accomplishments were fueled by his values and attitudes.

6. Perception
The process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret the input from their senses to give meaning and order to the world around them
People try to make sense of their environment and the objects, events, and other people in it

7. Figure 4.1 Components of Perception
Perceiver
Target
Situation or context in which perception takes place

8. Components of Perception
Perceiver: person trying to interpret some observation that he or she has just made or the input from his or her senses
Target of Perception: whatever the perceiver is trying to make sense of
Situation: the context in which perception takes place

9. The Accuracy of Perceptions5
The Accuracy of Perceptions
Not always accurate
Perceptions are critical for managerial functions
Motivating subordinates
Treating subordinates fairly and equitably
Making ethical decisions
Accuracy can be improved by understanding
what perceptions are
how they are formed
what influences them

10. Figure 4.2 Characteristics of the Perceiver That Affect Perception6
Figure 4.2 Characteristics of the Perceiver That Affect Perception
Insert Figure 4.2 here 3

11. Table 4.1 Factors That Influence Perception
Characteristics of the Perceiver
Characteristics of the Target
Characteristics of the Situation
Schemas
Ambiguity
Additional information
Motivational state
Social status
Salience
Mood
Use of impression management

12. Schemas Abstract knowledge structures that are stored in memory
Responsible for the organization and interpretation of information about targets of perception
Based on past experiences and knowledge
Resistant to change

13. The Functionality of Schemas
Schemas help us make sense of a confusing array of sensory input, choose what information to pay attention to and what to ignore, and guide perceptions of ambiguous information
Dysfunctional
Schemas can result in inaccurate perceptions

14. Stereotypes
Set of overly simplified and often inaccurate beliefs about the typical characteristics of a particular group
Dysfunctional schemas
Based on inaccurate information
Assigned based on a single distinguishing characteristic

15. Motivational State and Mood
Motivational State: The needs, values, and desires of a perceiver at the time of perception.
Mood: How a perceiver feels at the time of perception.

16. Ambiguity A lack of clearness or definiteness
As the ambiguity of a target increases, it becomes increasingly difficult for a perceiver to form an accurate perception
When a target is ambiguous, the perceiver needs to engage in a lot more interpretation and active construction of reality to form a perception of the target
The more ambiguous a target is, the more potential there is for errors in perception

17. Social Status
A person’s real or perceived position in society or in an organization.
Targets with relatively high status are perceived to be smarter, more credible, more knowledgeable, and more responsible for their actions than lower-status targets.

18. Impression Management
An attempt to control the perceptions or impressions of others
Targets are especially likely to use impression management tactics when interacting with perceivers who have power over them and on whom they are dependent for evaluations, raises, and promotions
Individuals who are high in self-monitoring are more likely than individuals who are low in self-monitoring to engage in impression management tactics

19. Table 4.2 Impression Management Tactics
Behavioral
Matching
The target of perception matches
his or her behavior to that of the
perceiver.
A subordinate tries to imitate her boss’s
behavior by being modest and soft-spoken
because her boss is modest and soft-spoken.
Self-
Promotion
The target tries to present herself
or himself in as positive a light as
possible.
A worker reminds his boss about his past
accomplishments and associates with co-
workers who are evaluated highly.
Conforming
to Situational
Norms
The target follows agreed-upon
rules for behavior in the
organization.
A worker stays late every night even if she has
completed all of her assignments because
staying late is one of the norms of her
Appreciating
or Flattering
Others
The target compliments the per-
ceiver. This tactic works best when
flattery is not extreme and when it
involves a dimension important
to the perceiver.
A coworker compliments a manager on his
excellent handling of a troublesome employee.
Being
Consistent
The target’s beliefs and behaviors
are consistent. There is agreement
between the target’s verbal and
nonverbal behaviors.
A subordinate delivering a message to his boss
looks the boss straight in the eye and has a
sincere expression on his face.

20. Salience
Extent to which a target of perception stands out in a group of people or things
Causes of salience
Being novel: Anything that makes a target unique in a situation (e.g., being the only young person)
Being figural: Standing out from the background (e.g., by wearing bright clothes)
Being inconsistent with other people’s expectations: Behaving or looking in a way that is out of the ordinary

21. Table 4.3 Causes of Salience
Being novel
Anything that makes a
target unique in a situation
Examples: Being the only person of a
particular age, sex, or race in a situation
Being
figural
Standing out from
the background
Example: Being in a spotlight, sitting at
the head of the table, wearing bright
clothes
Inconsistent
with other
people’s
expectations
Behaving or looking in a way
that is out of the ordinary
Example: A normally shy person who is
the life of the party

22. Table 4.4 Biases and Problems in Perception
Primacy
Effects
The initial pieces of information
that a perceiver has about a target
have an inordinately large effect on
the perceiver’s perception and
evaluation of the target.
Interviewers decide in the first few minutes
of an interview whether or not a job candidate
is a good prospect.
Contrast
Effect
The perceiver’s perceptions of
others influence the perceiver’s
perception of a target.
A manager’s perception of an average
subordinate is likely to be lower if that
subordinate is in a group with very high
performers rather than in a group with very
low performers.
Halo
Effect
The perceiver’s general impression
of a target influences his or her
perception of the target on specific
dimensions.
A subordinate who has made a good overall
impression on a supervisor is rated as
performing high-quality work and always
meeting deadlines regardless of work that is
full of mistakes and late.

23. Table 4.4 Biases and Problems in Perception
Similar-to-
me Effect
People perceive others who are
similar to themselves more
positively than they perceive those
who are dissimilar.
Supervisors rate subordinates who are similar
to them more positively than they deserve.
Harshness,
Leniency,
Average
Tendency
Some perceivers tend to be overly
harsh in their perceptions, some
overly lenient. Others view most
targets as being about average.
When rating subordinates’ performances, some
supervisors give almost everyone a poor rating,
some give almost everyone a good rating, and
others rate almost everyone as being about
average.
Knowledge
of Predictor
Knowing how a target stands on a
predictor of performance influences
perceptions of the target.
A professor perceives a student more positively
than she deserves because the professor knows
the student had a high score on the SAT.

24. Attribution Theory Describes how people explain the causes of behavior
Focuses on why people behave the way they do
Attributions can be made about the self or another person
Biases reduce the accuracy of attributions

25. Figure 4.3 Types of Attributions
Insert Figure 4.3 here 3

26. Attributional Biases
Fundamental attribution error - tendency to overattribute behavior to internal rather than external causes
Actor-observer effect - tendency to attribute other’s behavior to internal causes but one’s own behavior to external causes
Self-serving attribution - tendency to take credit for successes but avoid blame for failures

27. Objectives of Diversity Programs
Making explicit and breaking down organizational member’ stereotypes that result in inaccurate perceptions and attributions
Making members aware of different kinds of backgrounds, experiences, and values
Showing members how to deal effectively with diversity-related conflicts and tensions
Generally improving members’ understanding of each other

28. Diversity Training Role-playing Self-awareness activities
Education
Mentoring
Formal
Informal

29. Sexual Harassment Quid pro quo
Occurs when the harasser requests or forces an employee to perform sexual favors in order to receive some opportunity
Hostile work environment
Occurs when organizational members are faced with a work environment that is offensive, intimidating, or hostile

30. Examples of Hostile Work Environment Sexual harassment
Pornographic pictures
Sexual jokes
Lewd comments
Sexually-oriented comments
Displays of sexually-oriented objects

31. Steps to Combat Sexual Harassment
Develop a sexual harassment policy supported by top management
Clearly communicate the organization’s sexual harassment policy throughout the organization
Investigate charges of sexual harassment with a fair complain procedure
Take corrective action as soon as possible once it has been determined that sexual harassment has taken place
Provide sexual harassment training and education to all members of the organization