1. Mark Peffley PS 473 Public Opinion

3.  Political tolerance defined: a willingness to allow the expression of ideas and interests one opposes  Political tolerance in democratic theories:  What "solutions" to intolerance do these theories prescribe?  What predictions do these theories make about levels and sources of political tolerance among masses and elites that we can "test" with the available survey data?

4.  Mass support for general principles of civil liberties ("I believe in free speech/letting anyone run for office/giving a speech, no matter what their views are“ ) versus applying them to unpopular groups  Samuel Stouffer, 1954 survey  Political repression in the American states, 1954  John Sullivan et al, least-liked measure  Political tolerance in comparative perspective  Individual sources of political intolerance

5. General Principle: I believe in [free speech for everyone/letting anyone run for office/give a speech] no matter what their views are. ElitesMass Public 90% 80%

6. 1954 (Stouffer)1973 (Nunn, et al) Tolerance toward admitted communist 27%53% Tolerance toward atheists 37%62% Tolerance toward socialists 58%72% Who is more politically tolerant over time? Liberals? Who is more politically tolerant over time toward groups on the right as well as the left? Conservatives tolerate groups on the right and liberals tolerate groups on the left. Are we really measuring political “tolerance” if some people dislike the group much more than others?

9. James Gibson, Political repression in the American states, 1954, Whodunit?

10.  Gibson used Stouffer’s 1954 surveys of political tolerance toward American Communists among masses and elites to see whether mass or elite tolerance levels in the states are better predictors of levels of state repression of American Communists.

11. Political Repression of American Communists by State Govt, 1954

12. Mass and Elite Political Tolerance Scores by State, 1954

13. To what degree is repression of Communists in the Amer. states due to pol. tolerance of masses vs. elites, when we control for tolerance of the other group? State Mass Tolerance State Mass Tolerance State Elite Tolerance State Elite Tolerance State Repression State Repression.52 -.08 -.35 -.25 -.42

14. How does the evidence square with our democratic theories? 1.Stouffer’s original study a.Both masses & elites intolerant toward easy targets (admitted Comm.), but masses more so. b.Elites much less intolerant toward “hard” targets (suspected Comm.) than masses. 2.Gibson’s study of state repression using Stouffer survey data and state repression against Communists a.State repression associated with both mass & elite intolerance b.But, when we control for mass intolerance, elite intolerance is more predictive of state repression.

15. John Sullivan, et al, 1993; Peffley and Rohrschneider, 2003.

19.  Democratic longevity: political tolerance is higher in more stable democracies that have persisted over time (political learning)  Federalism: citizens in federal systems are more tolerant than citizens in unitary systems (lessons of compromise)  Targeted militarized disputes: political tolerance declines when states are targeted in a militarized dispute (bunker mentality)

21.  Selective recruitment  Adult political socialization  What democratic theory does this study support and why?

22. Individual Sources of Political Tolerance among Masses: What makes some people more tolerant than others? Social IndividualPolitical EnvironmentCharacteristicsTolerance (Education, etc.) (Personality, etc.)(Least-liked) Situational Triggers (Threats of violence, News coverage, etc.)

23. Individual Sources of Political Tolerance among Masses: What makes some people more tolerant than others?

24. Individual Sources of Political Intolerance among Masses

25.  Classical Theory:  Formal education has an indirect effect through personality (authoritarianism) and social conservatism  Conventional political activity (e.g., voting) has little effect; partisan activities can lead to less tolerance.  Theory as a “reconstructive ideal”?  Elitist Theory  Personality has an effect (hard to change)  Elites are more tolerant than masses  What is the better safeguard against repression?  Elites?  Mass education?