1. Qualitative Research

2. Qualitative Design Qualitative Emphasis on philosophical base
Theory developed initially or during study
Theory as a guide
No measurement of concepts
Rich description
Develop understanding and meaning from participants
Participants, informants, other people
Data are subjective/some objective; inclusive

3. Qualitative Design cont.
Control unimportant
Description of phenomena
Inclusive understanding
“Tool” is the researcher using a variety of sources
Exploratory designs
Credibility
Generalizability not an aim
Involved as participant/participant-observer

4. Goal of Qualitative Research
To Describe, explain, predict and control through improving comprehension of phenomena
The strategies it uses originally come from phenomenology

5. Strategies
Gestalt
Looking at a whole picture – a cluster of linked ideas which enhances the meaning of the ideas
1. The opposite of sedimented seeing (looking at things from only one perspective)
2. Implies deconstruction and moving towards and open context

6. Strategies cont. Bracketing
The researcher is expected to set aside personal biases- to bracket them-when engaged with participants. The researcher identifies personal biases about the phenomenon of interest to clarify how personal experience and beliefs may color what is heard and reported. The researcher makes his/her perspective explicit and this allows the reader to identify how the researcher’s perspective may influence the findings. By being aware of personal biases, the researcher is more likely to pursue issues of importance to the participant rather than leading the participant to issues important to the researcher.
(See Polit p. 228 – 10 ways to help bracket)

7. Strategies cont. Intuiting:
Focusing all awareness on the subject of interest – being completely absorbed – scanning for new understandings

8. Data Collection
Requires a long period of time and a large accumulation of handwritten notes
Requires discipline, good observation skills and careful review of data.
Rigor is related to viewing phenomena with empathy and within an open context – deconstructing and reconstructing while continuing to realize that there are many other ways of viewing.

9. Data Collection
Unstructured interviews – researcher does not have a clear idea of what is unknown
Semi-structured interviews – topics or guides
Focus –group interviews – 6-12 people
Internet interviews
Unstructured observation

10. Observation Aspects to observe Participant observation
Sequence of occurrence
Observation and active listening
Observation with limited participation
Participation and continued observation
Reflection and confirmation with informants
Levels of observation
Descriptive observation
Focused observation
Selective observation

11. Observation cont.
Think aloud – collect data while the participant is solving a problem or making a decision
Photo elicitation – interview is guided by photos – ask participant to interpret own photos or a new set of photos

12. Timing and rigor Data collection is time consuming
Balance conciseness with maximum description
Small number of participants
Might be idiosyncratic from population
Problems with transcribing
Deliberate alterations
Accidental alterations
Unavoidable alterations

13. Computer Programs Text retrieval Code and retrieve Concept mapping
Theory-building

14. Types of Qualitative Research
Phenomenological – can be described as in-depth conversations taking place two or more times with 10 or fewer participants who share their insights with rich and vivid reports
Phenomenological Researchers:
Husserl – descriptive
Heidigger – interpretive (hermeneutics)
Colaizzari – asks for validation from participants

15. Types of Qualitative Research
Phenomenological cont.
Purpose – to describe experiences as they are lived within a unique situation, unique to an individual – to study what is perceived to be reality
Research question – to identify the phenomena to be explored, it essence (variables) and its relationship to humans
Methodology – not planned because it interferes with creativity – identify sources, obtain data from sources

16. Types of Qualitative Research
Phenomenological cont.
Data Analysis – There are three analysis styles:
1. template – apply narrative data to a template, revise as necessary and resort data according to the new template.
2. editing – read through and sort for meaningful segments, develop a category scheme to sort and organize data.
3. immersion - use subjective reflection and intuitive interpretation
Data are interpreted as they are read and reread. They are categorized and coded as themes. The relationship of themes to each other is developed by intuitive judgment, but agreement is sought from others. An audit trail is kept.
Outcomes – examined from the orientation of the subjects studied and the themes identified. Transferability of the findings should be considered – can the results be meaningfully applied.

18. Types of Qualitative Research
Grounded Theory Research
Purpose – an inductive research technique used in studying areas in which little previous research has been conducted and in gaining a new viewpoint in familiar areas of research
Methodology – all of the steps occur simultaneously – observing collecting, organizing data and forming theory from the data at the same time, using large numbers of handwritten notes and tapings.

19. Types of Qualitative Research
Grounded Theory- Grew out of social science.
Glaser and Strauss are the researchers most often associated with this method
The focus is on the main concern or the problem that must be resolved. The core variable is the manner in which that concern is resolved

20. Types of Qualitative Research
Grounded theory cont. – methodology
Conceptual categories may be originally identified, but researchers also generate new categories and integrate them into a theory grounded in the data. Constant comparison is used to develop and refine the categories by asking “What is this? What else is it like, What is it different from?” Example = Compathy

21. Types of Qualitative Research
Concept development – the framework is further developed and thinking moves from inductive to deductive by clustering categories (reduction), by selective reading of the literature ( to merge findings from earlier studies with present findings), by selective sampling – making data collection more specific and, finally, by allowing emergence of the core variable – the most important concept
Concept formation – a beginning conceptual framework is developed from the data. When the concept is finalized it is compared with the data.

22. Grounded Theory cont.
Outcomes – the research report presents the theory supported by examples from the data – it is a narrative discussion of the study process and findings
1. Substantive theory – grounded in data on a specific substantive area (compathy)
2. Formal grounded theory – developed from a compilation of substantive grounded theory studies about one phenomenon (comfort)

23. Types of Qualitative Research
Ethnographic Research – a methodology for studying cultures where there is limited knowledge about a phenomenon, where the researcher wants to grasp the totality of a human lifestyle, to examine recurrent and patterned lifeways of people and to understand “meaning in context”
Ethnography – a systematic process of observing, detailing describing, documenting and analyzing the lifeways or patterns of a culture - the description and interpretation of cultural behavior

24. Types of Qualitative Research
Ethnographic Research cont.
Ethnoscience – a method of obtaining insights into the meaning of particular things and events as understood by participants of a culture. The assumption is that every culture guides its members “views of the world.”
1. emic – the ways members of a culture see the world
2. etic – the way outsiders interpret the experience of that culture.

25. Types of Qualitative Research
Ethnographic Research cont.
Three types of data
Cultural behavior (what the do)
Cultural artifacts (what they make or use)
Cultural speech (what they say)
Institutional ethnography – studying an organization – the social organization and work processes
Auto ethnography – self scrutiny (or groups or cultures to which the researcher belongs

26. Types of Qualitative Research
Ethnographic Research
Steps
Identify the culture to be studied
Identify significant variables within the culture
Literature review
Gain entrance (explain purpose to those in power)
Cultural immersion (living with and being accepted)
Acquiring informants to interpret the culture
Gathering data
Analyzing data (clarifying with informants)
Describe the culture
Develop theory

27. Types of Qualitative Research
Historical research
It is the systematic collection, critical evaluation and interpretation of historical evidence. It is usually qualitative, but sometimes quantitative data are used, such as records.
Purpose – to examine events of the past through a holistic framework – to examine meaning and to identify concepts and relationships, to draw inferences. Historians try to discover new knowledge – not just summarize existing knowledge .

28. Types of Qualitative Research
Historical Research
Methodology – formulate an idea or topic
Develop research questions – focus on explaining past
Develop an inventory of sources
Primary sources – provided by first hand informants
Secondary sources – second or third hand accounts of historical events or experiences
Clarify validity and reliability of data
Develop a research outline
Data collection
Analysis of data
Develop a written outline
Write a research report

29. Types of Qualitative Research
Historical Research cont.
Collection – periodicals, diaries, books, letters, newspapers, minutes of meetings, reports, physical remains, objects, photos, films, legal documents, drawings, records, tapes, etc. Primary sources – first hand information – and secondary sources
Data – events, situations or statements made in the past. There is no control over the documents, artifacts or records available. It is not a literature review.

30. Types of Qualitative Research
Historical Research cont.
Evaluation
External criticism – authenticity and genuiness of data – physical aspects
Internal criticism – worth of the evidence – content- compared to other people’s accounts, knowledge of the time when the document etc. was produced, knowledge of the biases of the writer, knowledge of the competence of the writer
Analysis
Analysis of the data is logical rather than statistical

31. Types of Qualitative Research
Case Studies
Intrinsic – researcher doesn’t have to find the case – it’s already there
Instrumental – the researcher has a question and must find a case that illustrates it
These are not case reports
These are not generalizable, but can challenge generalizations

32. Types of Qualitative Research
Narrative Analysis
These are analyses of stories told by subjects
They communicate meaning by different forms of storytelling, pitch of voice, changes in voice, pauses and hesitations

33. Types of Qualitative Research
Descriptive Qualitative Study
Descriptive quantitative studies are more common
This is strait description with no interpretation

34. Triangulation The use of multiple methods and sources
Quantitative and qualitative in the same study
Can use different methods in sequence, i.e., first qualitative, then descriptive quantitative, then correlational quasi-experimental or experimental