1. Umar & the Early Conquests Islamic History: the First 150 Years © 2006 Abdur Rahman

2. Session Plan 1.The Caliphate of Umar 2.The Conquest of Syria 3.The Conquest of Iraq 4.Aftermath

3. Section I: The Caliphate of Umar

4. Umar Umar ibn al-Khattab, to give him his full name, a member of the `Adi clan of Quraysh Umar a physically strong and imposing man Renowned for his temper and strong sense of justice His family were strong adherents of Meccan paganism His father Khattab was a persecutor of Zayd ibn Naufal, one of the hanifs Until his conversion to Islam, Umar a strong follower of the old ways

5. Umar Umar converted during the mid-Meccan period of Muhammad’s preaching Emigrated to Medina (and is thus a Muhajir) Took part in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq and others One of Muhammad’s closest companions Also a close associate of Abu Bakr We have already seen his role in the Saqifah incident Abu Bakr appoints Umar his successor in 13AH

6. Umar’s Government Umar’s stamped his personality on virtually every aspect of government As such, in many ways, Umar represents the Muslim ideal of an industrious and just ruler Although some aspects of this reputation may well be legendary, it is fair to say that Umar was keenly interested in just and fair administration In this section, we will look at Umar’s administration a little more closely This will help us gain insight into Umar himself as well as into the running of the early Islamic state

7. Umar’s Government Umar’s administration marked by consultation The concept of Sabiqa (‘Precedence’) Muslim community graded according to the earliness of conversion 1.Early Meccan converts (muhajiroon) 2.The Ansar 3.Participants at Badr 4.Participants at Uhud 5.Participants at Khandaq 6.Those who took the ‘Pledge of Good Pleasure’ (Bay`ah al-Ridwan) at Hudaybiyya with the Prophet 7.Those who converted after the conquest of Mecca This was also used to assign payments during the conquests (known as the diwan)

8. Umar’s Government Institution of the hijri dating system Understanding of his role ‘I have no greater right on your money [i.e. public funds] than the guardian of an orphan has on the orphan’s property. If I am wealthy, I shall not take any of it. If I am needy, I shall take for my maintenance according to usage. You people – you have many rights on me which you should demand of me. One of those rights is that I should not collect revenues and spoils of war unlawfully; the second is that the revenues and spoils of war should not be spent unlawfully; another is that I should increase your stipends and protect the frontiers, and that I should cast you into unnecessary perils’ (Abu Yusuf, 117, quoted in Numani, 2004, 79) Strict enforcement of Islamic criminal law (hudud) Said to have had his son, Abu Shahma, flogged for drinking in public, as was Qadama ibn Maz’un (his brother-in-law) Abdullah b. Amr b. al-`As (son of the conqueror of Egypt) said to have beaten a Copt (Egyptian Christian), Umar had the Copt beat Abdullah in public, in front of his father

9. Section II: The Conquest of Syria

10. Byzantine-Persian Wars During Muhammad’s time, Byzantium and Sassanid Persia were in the midst of a devastating war Persian occupation of Syria and Palestine This is alluded to in Surat al-Rum (1-3) of the Quran: ‘…The Romans [Byzantines] have been vanquished in the nearest part of the land; but after being vanquished, they shall vanquish, in a few years…’ Fall of Jerusalem, removal of the True Cross Syria occupied for approximately 15 years In other words, almost an entire generation Heraclius, governor of Africa, overthrows Byzantine ruler and becomes emperor Roman re-conquest Persian ruler overthrown and Sassanid state thrown into civil war An expensive and exhausting war

11. Syria Please see maps contained in the Reading Pack Syrian geography makes it open to both the Mediterranean Sea and to the Deserts of Arabia Historically, many different cultural, linguistic and religious influences in Syria ‘Syria’ known to the Arabs as Bilad al-Sham Al-Sham includes modern Syria, Israel and Lebanon (we will use the term in this sense) Syrian history long Strong Hellenistic (Greek) influence An important part of the Roman empire for some 600 years by Muhammad’s time Greek speaking urban elite, Aramaic speaking countryside By this time, ‘Syriac’ (a form of Aramaic) had become an important liturgical language for eastern Christians

12. Syria Syrian desert largely Arab speaking Bedouin by this time Palmyra A number of different religions present Large Jewish communities Samaritans ‘Pagans’, i.e. the Moon god Sin in Harran Syria largely Christian Monophysite Creed Opposed to Byzantine state ‘orthodoxy’ Dispute related to nature of Christ Persian occupation Syrian population seems to have leaned away from Byzantium More in common with Arabs?

13. The Conquest of Syria A detailed account of the invasion of Syria is beyond our scope here Also, the sources are difficult to reconcile on a number of key points As such, we will focus on the key events Those interested in a more detailed discussion should refer to F. M. Donner’s The Early Islamic Conquests The initial phase seems to have been mainly concerned to assert Medinan authority in the Syrian desert Punitive expeditions also seem to have been undertaken against the Ghassanid allies of Rome Under Abu Bakr, raiding seems to have been the main focus Khalid b. Sa’id seemingly charged to bring Arab tribes of the region under control

14. Conquest of Syria Byzantine allies begin to gather, along with regular troops Khalid b. al-Walid ordered to join Syrian army from Iraq Khalid’s Desert March (see map) With his arrival, Muslim attention seems to have turned towards the cities of Syria The first proper clash between Muslim and Byzantine forces seems to have taken place near Gaza in 634/12AH Battle of Ajnadayn (July 634CE/27 th /28 th Jumada I 13AH) Fiercely fought, but seemingly a resounding victory for the Muslim armies A Roman commander killed: al-Qubuqlar or Cubicularius (‘Chamberlain’) Battle of Fihl: a further defeat for Syrians, who then regroup in the Damascus region Byzantine reinforcements

15. The Battle of Yarmuk The crucial encounter in the battle for Syria Related in all the main sources See the passage of al-Baladhuri provided Fantastic numbers: 200,000 Byzantines against 24,000 Muslims Both sides realised the serious of the battle Baladhuri reports that the ‘Greeks’ chained themselves together (though this may be a double) Syrian population said to have supported Muslim forces Sources report that a number of women fought, such as Hind, wife of Abu Sufyan After the defeat, Heraclius reportedly said: "Peace unto thee, O Syria, and what an excellent country this is for the enemy!“ Most probably apocryphal

16. Conquest of Syria Damascus and other key cities occupied Jerusalem holds out until 16/17AH (637 – 8CE) Traditional account holds that the city refused to surrender unless the Caliph himself came in person Umar said to have arrived on a camel with a single servant in rough clothes Tradition holds that he visited the shrines of Jerusalem, but refused to pray in any of the churches for fear it be turned into a mosque See handout entitled ‘Pact of `Umar’

17. Conquest of Syria It is important to remember that the full picture is more complex than this Moreover, there is major disagreement between modern historians of the stages of conquest

18. A Brief Pause Turn to the person next to you and spend a couple of minutes summarising the lecture thus far. Questions?

19. Section III: The Conquest of Iraq

20. Iraq A land of contrasts Low-lying alluvial basin Ancient southern Iraq marshland Foothills of Zagros mountains of Iran in the East Water scarce outside of river areas Social, religious and linguistic complexity Most of the population seem to have been Aramaic speaking Largely Christian in terms of faith Mainly Nestorian, though with some Jacobite communities in the North Along the desert fringes, large numbers of Arab tribes lived Some of these tribes were nomadic, some were settled Al-Hira: former capital of Lakhmid kings (clients of Persia)

21. Iraq Iraq the birthplace of writing Sumer & Babylon Achaemenid Persia & the Seleucid empire Parthian kingdom By the 7 th century, Iraq had been part of the Persian Sassanid empire for some 400 years In other words, there was a large and influential Persian community in Iraq The former capital cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon situated in central Iraq Persian landlord: dihqan Zoroastrianism mainly in cities and official contexts Iraq the birthplace of Manichaeism Large and influential Jewish community in Babylon The Babylonian Talmud produced there

22. The Conquest of Iraq In contrast to Syria, Iraq does not seem to have been an initial target Initial operations seem to have been limited to Arab tribes living on the fringes of Mesopotamia Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha’s raids Upon his accession, Umar sends Abu `Ubayd al- Thaqafi with reinforcements Abu `Ubayd an important figure and in day two we will come across his son al-Mukhtar Muslim forces defeated at the ‘Battle of the Bridge’ Umar convinced of the need to send a major force This force subsequently commanded by Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas, a major Companion of Muhammad

23. The Battle of al-Qadisiya A major battle and victory for the Muslim forces opened up Iraq Our sources put the Muslim army at somewhere between 6,000 and 12,000 men Persian regular army said to be 60,000 strong A hard fought affair, spread over several days Raids and excursions into southern Persia (Fars) and northern Mesopotamia (Jazira) Persian forces attempt to regroup Yazdigird III, the Persian king (Shahanshah) orders conscription Battle of Nihawand: ‘The Victory of Victories’ Persian forces badly defeated Yazdigird flees to Turkish Khagan, dies soon afterwards Persian empire conquered completely

24. Section IV: Aftermath

25. Aftermath The conquests brought radical change to the emerging Islamic state Firstly, it brought in large amounts of wealth in the form of booty Secondly, it meant that the Muslims came into possession of large estates in both Syria, Iraq and Iran Thirdly, resulted in an increased number of slaves These created social tensions, which came to the fore during the caliphate of Uthman Umar generally allowed the conquering tribes to settle in relevant areas These tribes thus migrated to these areas Led to population shifts Soldiers (Muqatila) registered on the state payroll (the Diwan) Umar used the concept of Sabiqa to decide rates of stipend Appointed Mu`awiya ibn Abi Sufyan to governorship of Syria

26. Aftermath Garrison cities (misr, pl. amsar) Establishment of Kufa and Basra, two important cities These tribes thus migrated to these areas Led to population shifts Soldiers (Muqatila) registered on the state payroll (the Diwan) Umar used the concept of Sabiqa to decide rates of stipend Appointed Mu`awiya ibn Abi Sufyan to governorship of Syria

27. The Death of Umar Umar assassinated by a Persian prisoner of war, Firoz, in 23AH Apparently after Umar had judged against him in a dispute regarding pay Stabbed in the mosque during prayer Firoz then said to have killed himself Umar calls a number of senior Companions together and arranges a committee to elect his successor Buried next to Muhammad in Medina

28. The Shura Committee Chosen in advance by Umar Abdur Rahman ibn Awf (one of the ‘10 promised paradise’) Uthman ibn Affan (twice a son-in-law of Muhammad and member of Qurayshi aristocracy) Ali ibn Abi Talib Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas Al-Zubayr ibn Awwam (an early companion and the Prophet’s cousin) Talha ibn Ubayallah (an early companion) We will look more closely at this committee and its deliberations in Day 2