1. UNIFICATION PROCESS OVERIEW STAGE 1Acquisition of Lombardy France and Italy go to War with Austria 1859. The Battles of Magenta and Solferino were particularly bloody. Napoleon calls for an armistice at Villa Franca but gives Lombardy to Piedmont. STAGE 2Acquisition of Tuscany, Modena, Parma and Romagna Central states voted for annexation to Piedmont. Cavour persuades French to accept this by promising her Nice and Savoy. STAGE 3Acquisition of Sicily and Naples and Papal States Garibaldi defeated Neapolitan army in June 1860 with his ‘thousand’. Naples surrendered September 1860. He hands over conquests over to Piedmont and Victor Emmanuel II. March 1861‘The Kingdom of Italy’ is proclaimed STAGE 4Acquisition of Venetia and Rome Venetia added 1866 after Austro – Prussian war. Rome added 1870 as France was fighting against Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War.

2. BUILD UP TO WAR: THE PACT OF PLOMBIERES: THE ORSINI PLOT: On 14 th January 1858 four Italians led by Count Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon. They believed it would lead the restoration of the Republic in France and ultimately gain support for Italian Unification. They failed and were arrested. At his trial Orsini appealed to Napoleon to support Italian unification. Napoleon was so impressed with his arguments that he met with Cavour. THE PACT OF PLOMBIERES: They met at Plombieres. In return for Cavour’s assurance that Italian Nationalists would be suppressed in Piedmont, as long as he gained a wife for his cousin Jerome, he would send French troops if a war was to commence between Austria and Italy, as long as Austria was the aggressor. It was finally agreed that A Kingdom of Upper Italy (ruled by Piedmont) would be created to include Piedmont, Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena and the Papal Legations. Central Italy would be controlled by Tuscany, Rome would remain in the Pope’s hands, Naples would remain separate. In return for 200,000 French troops Napoleon would gain Nice and Savoy and Victor Emmanuel’s daughter, the 15 year old Marie Clothilde would marry the middle-aged Prince Jerome.

3. STAGE 1: ACQUISITION OF LOMBARDY The Pact of Plombieres set up the agreement between Cavour and Napoleon III. Cavour now needed to provoke war with Austria. Victor Emmanuel delivered a provocative speech on 12 th December 1859 but it had little effect. Cavour mobilised the Piedmontese Army in March 1859. The Austrians followed suit. The Austrians demanded the Piedmontese army to demobilise within three days. It didn’t and Austria declared war on Piedmont on 29 th April. The French sent their army. Piedmont ensured the National Society engineered revolutions in central and northern Italy. WAR WITH AUSTRIA 1859 Two minor victories by the Piedmontese army at Palestro and by Garibaldi’s ‘Cacciatori delle Alpi’ at Como in May 1859 paved the way for the two main battles of the war. The Battles of Magenta and Solferino: (4 th and 24 th June) Austria was defeated at both (although only just). The Carnage was horrific (led to the Red Cross being set up) and Austria didn’t look as if it would pull out of N Italy. So Napoleon secretly made peace with Austria at Villafranca on 8 th July 1859. Villafranca: this concluded that Austria would give Lombardy to France to pass to Piedmont (but not give up Venetia). Piedmont was not to acquire the central states and the Pope would lead an Italian confederation of states. Cavour resigned before the official end of war at the Treaty of Zurich Nov 1859.

4. STAGE 2 – ACQUISITION OF TUSCANY, MODENA, PARMA AND ROMAGNA: Napoleon however declared that the Pope’s temporal role was in decline and met with Cavour (back as PM on 21 st Jan 1860). Cavour agreed to hand over Nice and Savoy to France as long as France would accept annexation by Piedmont of the Central duchies. This was agreed as long as the central duchies held plebiscites and voted in favour of Piedmontese annexation. Cavour manipulated the National Society to cause unrest in the Central Sates to initially give him a bargaining tool over Napoleon. He then used them to rig the plebiscites which worked as all were in favour. Cavour gained easy expansion of Piedmont through the support of the National Society and through clever diplomacy with Napoleon. March 1860: Tuscany plebiscite 386,443 votes for 14,925 against. Landslide victories – some element of corruption.

5. Stage 3: Sicily & Naples By Dr. Slow and Oscar

6. WHO WAS RESPONSIBLE?  In May 1860 Garibaldi set out on the greatest venture of his life, the conquest of Sicily and Naples. This time he had no government backing, but Cavour and Victor Emmanuel did not dare to stop him, for he had become a popular hero. They stood ready to assist, but only if he proved successful, and he accepted this unwritten arrangement, confident that he could thus force Cavour to support a new move toward the unification of the Italian peninsula.

7. KEY EVENTS  Garibaldi marched north through Naples. To aid his invasion of the city of Naples, Cavour tried to start a pro piedmontese uprising, but it was unsuccessful.  Cavour had to stop Garibaldi from reaching Rome, so as to keep backing from France. He organised an invasion of the Papal States from the north, to meet and block Garibaldi.

8. KEY EVENTS CONT.  Though the Piedmontese army were not well received in the papal states, Napoleon III agreed to turn a blind eye, provided Rome was not touched.  The two armies met at Teano, without confrontation Garibaldi handed over all his territories to the king, making unification under the leadership of Piedmont a reality.

9. The Papal States

10. After taking Naples Garibaldi intended to attack north to the papal states, Cavour feared Garibaldi would attack Rome, which would lead to Strife with France and other catholic countries. Cavour was aware that many men had joined Garibaldi, many of which were Mazzinians. These Mazzinians opposed the church and would gladly support an attack on the Rome. If they won control the whole nationalist leadership might slip away from piedmont and Victor Emmanuel II. To stop Garibaldi from attacking Rome, Cavour sent Piedmontese army through the papal States to meet him before he could reach the city. Popey didn’t wish to see any military in his territory but the Piedmontese army with Victor Emmanuel II at its head; defeating the Papal states army and killing civilians as traitors.

11. In October Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi met in Neapolitan territory. Garibaldi saluted Emmanuel as the first King of Italy and agreed that the territory he had taken should be given to the King. In the ballots that were soon held in Sicily, Naples, Umbria and the papal Marches there was an overwhelming wish for annexation by Piedmont, nationalist feelings were running high after the actions of the summer and there seemed no real alternative now that the previous rulers were no longer in place. On the 7 th of November Victor Emmanuel II and Garibaldi rode together in a triumphant state entry into Naples.

12. Garibaldi was offered the rank of major general, the title of prince, a large pension and even a castle but he refused them all as he felt that the King had behaved badly towards the red shirts. Soon afterwards the Garibaldini was disbanded as they were no longer needed. Garibaldi retired to his island of Caprera with a years supply of macaroni and very little else.

14. Stage 4: Rome and Venetia 1862- 1870

15. 1862 The first attempt: Garibaldi ventured to Sicily to collate 3000 troops with whom he would march through Naples toward Rome. Rattazzi, Cavour’s successor, planned a similar invasion of Rome, but the French did not support it, and thus it failed. Garibaldi was welcomed in Palermo by the support of its inhabitants, however, Victor Emanuel sensed danger and thus withdrew his support. They encountered hostility from local troops, and lost numerous soldiers, and all but 500 retreated into the mountains. The 500 were easily crushed at Aspromonte by government forces, and Garibaldi suffered a gunshot wound to his leg, and was imprisoned. This was most humiliating for Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel.

16. 1864 Rome was protected by the Halian government, and as a result the French saw it an opportunity withdraw their troops from the city. The capital was then converted to Florence from Turin.

17. 1867 The second conquest: Garibaldi attempted yet another captured on Rome, but was arrested on government orders. Despite this, his men carried on without him. He then deceived the guards, dressed as a fisherman, and then sailed to the mainland in a dinghy. He retook command of his troops, and led them to a victory against the Papal Army. Unfortunately, after such a valiant effort, the people of Rome failed to support him. Victor Emmanuel then disowned Garibaldi and Rome was then reoccupied by French forces.

18. Stage 4 Rome(1870) and Venetia(1866) Venetia Rome

19. Venetia Otto von Bismarck(Prussian chancellor) signed a treaty with Italy that if it joins the war with Austria, Italy would receive Venetia. Napoleon III also made a treaty with Bismarck. If France keeps its neutrality in Austro- Prussian war, France would receive Venetia in return. This then would be given to Italy for opening a second front.

20. Venetia In the actual war, Italians lost the (second) battle of Custoza. Although they had larger forces than the Austrians. But this didn’t matter, as the decisive battle was fought on 3 rd July by Austria and Prussia. At Könniggrätz. Prussians lost 2,000 men while Austrians 6,000. War came to an end with the Peace of Prague in August 1866. Italy gained Venetia from Napoleon III. However, there was a feeling of humiliation by how I was done, not by Italians but by the Great Powers.

21. Prussia Austria Venetia

22. Rome The outstanding problem now was to get rid of the French garrison in Rome. In 1870, the Franco-Prussian war broke out. Napoleon III needed reinforcements to bring his army up to strength, and so withdrew his troops from Rome. After 1 st September 1870, when Napoleon III was taken prisoner by the Prussians after the battle of Sedan-they felt safe to take action.

23. Rome King Victor Emmanuel II send a letter to the Pope suggesting an agreement. The Pope was to give up on his temporal power, but he would still stay the Head of the Church. The Pope rejected the offer. As a result, 6 000 Italian troops occupied Rome. On September 20 th Victors Emmanuel’s army entered Rome. In October, Roman citizens voted by 133,681 to 1507 for union with the rest of Italy.