1. Slide 1 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT John W. Santrock Chapter Five: Motor, Sensory, and Perceptual Development

2. Slide 2 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 Dynamic Systems View Dynamic systems theory –Infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting (perceptions and actions are coupled) –Motivation creates new behaviors –Perceptions “fine tunes” movements with repetitive actions –Infants explore and select possible solutions of new task; assembles adaptive patterns

3. Slide 3 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 Dynamic Systems View Dynamic systems theory –Constraints of possible actions and skills Infants body/mind maturation Environmental support –Not a passive process Genes do not dictate unfolding sequence of skills

4. Slide 4 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 4 Reflexes Built-in reactions to stimuli –Govern newborn’s movements –Genetically carried survival mechanisms –Allow adaptation to environment –Provides opportunity to learn –Some disappear (e.g., grasping), some last throughout life (e.g., coughing)

5. Slide 5 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 5 Reflexes Description SuckingAutomatic sucking object placed in newborn’s mouth RootingReaction when infant’s cheek is stroked or side of mouth touched MoroStartle response in reaction to sudden, intense noise or movement GraspingOccurs when something touches infant’s palms; infant response is to grasp tightly

6. Slide 6 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 6 Gross Motor Skills Involve large-muscle activities –Foundations for development Posture; linked to sensory information for –Regulating balance/equilibrium –Vision and hearing –Self-control increases with infant age »Linked to neural pathway development »Improved by repetitive movements

7. Slide 7 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 Gross Motor Skills Infancy – Development of posture – Locomotion and crawling – Learning to walk – Caregivers important Safety of child and environment during efforts –First year: developmental milestones Timing of onset varies

8. Slide 8 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 8 Gross Motor Skills Second year –More accomplishments; increased independence –Initiates more interaction with others –Still need safety restrictions on movements –Parent/caregiver involvement Encourage/guide child’s development Structured exercise not recommended Cultural variations exist

9. Slide 9 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 9 Fig. 5.3 Milestones in Gross Motor Development

10. Slide 10 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 10 Gross Motor Skills Childhood –Improved movements; more mastery, confidence Boys usually outperform girls –Extended periods of paying attention, sitting still More fatigued from extended inactivity Benefit more from exercise breaks –Organized sports best for development Positive and negatives consequences

11. Slide 11 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11 Gross Motor Skills Childhood –Organized sports best for development Provide opportunities to learn how to compete Improves self-esteem Opportunities for peer relations/friendships Reduces risk of becoming obese –Three or more hours per week beyond school

12. Slide 12 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 12 Gross Motor Skills Childhood –Organized sports can have negative experiences Pressure to win or achieve Risk of physical injuries Distraction from academic work Unrealistic expectations for success Impacted by professional sports and media Dangers of exploitation

13. Slide 13 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 13 Guidelines for Parents and Coaches of Children in Sports DoDon’t Make sports funYell or scream at child Mistakes are okayContinue condemning Allow questionsPoint out errors in front of others Show calm mannerExpect instant learning Respect child’s participationExpect child to be a pro Be positive role modelMake fun of the child Be supportiveCompare child to others Make sports all work

14. Slide 14 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 14 Gross Motor Skills Adolescence –Skills continue to improve Adulthood –Peak physical performance before age 30 Often between ages 19 and 26 –After age 30; biological functions decline Not uniform; organ decline varies

15. Slide 15 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 15 Gross Motor Skills Late Adulthood –Decreased activity level linked to biological and psychological health –Natural aging leads to gradual deterioration Lifestyle habits/patterns have impact –Physical activity has more positive effects than educational intervention

16. Slide 16 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 16 Fig. 5.4 Movement and Aging

17. Slide 17 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 17 Fine Motor Skills Infancy –Involves more finely tuned movements, such as finger dexterity –Reaching and grasping Size, shape, and texture of object matter Experience affects vision, perceptions, skills –Exercising of skills, safety are important Palmar grasp, pincer grip at end of first year

18. Slide 18 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18 Fine Motor Skills Childhood and adolescence –By age 3; ability to stack/balance objects –Precision increases with age; show desire to build projects — needs adult guidance to complete Linked to increased myelination of CNS Hands, coordination improve Begin to show manipulative skills of adults by age 12 –Musical instruments, fine quality crafts

19. Slide 19 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 19 Fine Motor Skills Adult development –Skills may decline in middle and late adulthood Dexterity decreases In healthy adults, functional skills are good Pathological conditions may result in weakness of paralysis of hands Competent handwriting into old age

20. Slide 20 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 20 Fine Motor Skills Older Adult development –Slowed movements due to Neural noise: interference with incoming stimuli Strategy: ability to perform as usual –Compensation by engaging in other strategies –Capable of learning new motor tasks; usually perform slower than young adults

21. Slide 21 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 21 Sensory and Perceptual Sensation –Information (stimuli) processed by sensory receptors Eyes (retina, optic nerve), ears (cochlea, auditory nerve), tongue, nose, skin Perception –What is perceived (interpreted) from stimuli

22. Slide 22 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 22 Sensory and Perceptual Ecological view –Perceptual system selects which information to process from environment Guides active/interactive behaviors –Affordances Opportunities to interact with objects within one’s capabilities –Adaptation: combining of perceptions and actions

23. Slide 23 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 23 Sensory and Perceptual Infant perception testing –Visual preference method To determine if infants can distinguish between various stimuli –Habituation: decreased response to stimuli –Dishabituation: recovery of habituated response –High-amplitude sucking: nipple sucking rate indicates preferences/discriminatory abilities

24. Slide 24 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 24 Sensory and Perceptual Infant perception testing –Orienting response Tracking by moving head or eyes to follow moving object or sounds Use of startle response — reaction to noise –Equipment used Video recorders, computers, recorders of bodily functions (heart rate, etc.)

25. Slide 25 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 25 Sensory and Perceptual Visual perception –Variances due to differences in how eyes function over time (colors, distances, light presence) –Infancy: world is “blooming, buzzing confusion” Visual acuity increases with age Preference for human faces soon after birth Discriminates female from male at 3 months

26. Slide 26 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 26 Infants’ Visual Perception Visual Acuity 20/600 at birth, near adult levels by 1 year Color Sees some colors by 2 months, has preferences by 4 months Perceiving Patterns Prefer patterns at birth; face scanning improves by 2 months Depth PerceptionDeveloped by 7-8 months Visual Expectations Begins by 4 months; all know visual cliff by 6-to-12 months

27. Slide 27 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 27 Sensory and Perceptual Visual perception –Perceptual constancy Physical world perceptions remain constant –Size constancy Recognition that object remains the same even though the retinal image changes –Shape constancy Recognition that object remains the same even though its orientation changes

28. Slide 28 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 28 Sensory and Perceptual Visual perception –Depth perception Visual cliff experiments –Perceptions affected by experiences Debate over affect of nature versus nurture

29. Slide 29 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 29 Sensory and Perceptual Childhood –Improved color detection, visual expectations, controlling eye movements (for reading) –Preschoolers may be farsighted –Signs of vision problems Rubbing eyes, blinking, squinting Irritability at games requiring distance vision Closing one eye, tilting head to see, thrusting head forward to see

30. Slide 30 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 30 Sensory and Perceptual Adulthood and aging –Loss of Accommodation — presbyopia –Decreased blood supply to eye — smaller visual field, increased blind spot –Slower dark adaptation, decline in motion sensitivity –Declining color vision: green-blue-violet –Declining depth perception — problems with steps or curbs

31. Slide 31 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 31 Fig. 5.12 Glare Vision and Aging

32. Slide 32 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 32 Sensory and Perceptual Diseases of the eyes –Cataracts: thickening eye lens that causes vision to become cloudy, opaque, distorted –Glaucoma: damage to optic nerve because of pressure created by buildup of fluid in eye –Macular degeneration: involves deterioration of retina

33. Slide 33 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 33 Hearing Fetus, Infant, and child –Fetus hears in last months before birth –Newborns/Infants: Loudness: cannot hear soft sounds well Less sensitive to pitch; sensitive to human speech Localization: distinguish general direction of sound origination

34. Slide 34 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 34 Hearing Fetus, Infant, and child –Most children’s hearing is adequate –Early screening in infancy for problems Hearing loss corrections: –Surgery, hearing aids, cochlear implants Otitis media: middle ear infection –Unattended results in hearing loss, language development, socialization –Treatments: antibiotics, tubes in ears

35. Slide 35 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 35 Hearing Adolescence –Most have excellent hearing Risks for loss: loud/maximum volume music Adulthood –Decline begins about age 40; other factors impact Males lose sensitivity to high-pitched sounds sooner than females Gender differences: due to occupation? Treatments: hearing aids, cochlear implants

36. Slide 36 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 36 Other Senses Touch and pain –Newborns: sensitivity to pain, touch Circumcision of boys; amazing resiliency Use of anesthesia in surgery is controversial Adulthood: most research on old age –Touch sensitivity: decreases in old age Smell: –Decline can start in 20s; declines with age/health Affects satisfaction with life, food

37. Slide 37 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 37 Other Senses Taste –Fetus: sensitivity present before birth –Newborns: facial reactions to various tastes –Infants: reference for “salty” tastes at 4 mos. –Older adults: decline in ability to distinguish sour, sweet, and bitter solutions Severity affected by medications and health Seasoned food preferences lead to junk food

38. Slide 38 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 38 Other Senses Intermodal perception –Ability to relate and integrate information about two or more sensory modalities, such as vision and hearing –Exists in newborns; sharpens with experience in first year

39. Slide 39 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 39 Perceptual-Motor Coupling Distinction between perceiving and doing? –Controversial for some researchers –Explores how people assemble motor behaviors for perceiving and acting –Babies coordinate movements with perceptual information to maintain balance, reach for objects, etc. –Driving a car is coupling; declines in late adulthood

40. Slide 40 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 40 The End